“And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us, and we have seen his glory, glory as of the only Son from the Father, full of grace and truth.” John 1:14
Here are Dr. Martin Luther’s comments on John 1:14…
“The greatest treasure and the highest comfort we Christians have is the fact that the Word, the true, natural Son of God, has become a man who in every respect has flesh and blood as any other man has, and who has become man for our sake that we may be raised to the great glory of having our flesh and blood, our entire body, with all its parts and members, sit in heaven above, like God; that we may boldly defy the devil and whatever assails us. For now we are certain that our bodies belong in heaven and are heirs of the kingdom of heaven.”
Martin Luther, Sermon on John 1:14 (Weimar Edition, 46)
Martin Luther celebrates Christmas with his family and friends
It was four hundred years ago that a group of English Separatists–later known as “the Pilgrims”–arrived in New England. They had just endured an arduous journey across the storm-tossed Atlantic Ocean. They were anxious to establish a new colony where they could worship God as the Bible dictated, raise their children with a minimum of worldly influences, and live as freemen building their own homes and businesses. With a great sense of hope they scouted out the regions around Cape Cod and chose a site for their colony that seemed to present the best situation for building a village. Edward Winslow describes it this way,
Edward Winslow
“So in the morning, after we had called on God for direction, we came to this resolution, to go presently ashore again, and to take a better view of two places which we thought most fitting for us; for we could not now take time for further search or consideration, our victuals being much spent, especially our beer, and it being now the 19th of December. After our landing and viewing of places, so well as we could, we came to a conclusion, by most voices, to set on the main land, on the first place, on a high ground, where there is a great deal of land cleared, and have been planted with corn three or four years ago; and there is a very sweet brook runs under the fill side, and many delicate springs of good water as can be drunk, and where we may harbor our shallops and boats exceedingly well; and in this brook much good fish in their seasons; on the further side of the river also much ground cleared. In one field is a great hill, on which we point to make a platform, and plant our ordinance, which will command all round about…What people inhabit here we yet know not, for as yet we have seen none. So there we make our rendezvous, and a place for some of our people, about twenty, resolving in the morning to come all ashore and to build houses.”
Edward Winslow, “Mourt’s Relation,” 37-38
Coming ashore they stepped off the shallop onto a large flat rock–which in later years would be remembered as “Plymouth Rock”–and they began the challenging task of carving a village out of the raw wilderness. In God’s providence, this site proved to have been an area which in the past had supported an Indian village. There were cleared fields and abundant resources for their future prosperity all around; but not a single Indian! They now just had to build shelters so that they could get through the cold winter months.
With an abiding hope and every expectation of God’s blessing they set about their work of constructing a store house, a few small cabins, cutting lots of firewood, and stockpiling whatever food they could find for the lean months ahead. Regarding their character, Pastor John Robinson and Elder William Brewster had noted in a letter to one of their financial backers, “We are not like some, whom small things discourage, or small discontents cause to wish themselves at home again.” No, these people were made of sterner stuff! They knew that they were “Pilgrims” and they looked “forward to the city that has foundations, whose designer and builder is God.” (Heb. 11:10).
“There is therefore now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus. For the law of the Spirit of life has set you free in Christ Jesus from the law of sin and death.” Romans 8:1-2
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Here is my copy of Thomas Boston’s classic study on Human Nature in its Fourfold State
What are Christians to think about the benefits of the “New Birth?” This question especially comes into focus when the ongoing struggle with sin is considered. A Christian might ask, “Since I am born again, why am I still struggling with sin?” The Bible’s teaching on this subject is that when a person experiences the New Birth that person is delivered from the penalty of sin and declared to be righteous on the merits of Jesus Christ alone (Rom. 3:24-26, 8:1-4; 2 Cor. 5:21; Eph. 2:8-9; 1 Pet. 2:24-25, 3:18). This does not mean that the battle with sin is over for that new believer. Instead, there is an ongoing struggle with sin which is an ordinary part of the Christian life, and each Christian should expect this.
Roman Catholics have historically rejected this way of thinking and called the forgiveness of sins in the life of the believer (our justification) a “legal fiction.” R. C. Sproul notes,
Rome rejects this concept of imputed forensic justification on the grounds that it involves God in a “legal fiction.” Rome alleges that this view casts a shadow on the integrity of God and his justice. For God to consider someone just who is not inherently just is for God is to be guilty of some sort of fiction or deceit. Rome cannot tolerate Luther’s simil iustus et peccator. A person is either just or sinful; one cannot be both at the same time…Rome’s view presupposes that the only true justness or righteousness is inherent righteousness. It denies the truth of imputation. The biblical doctrine of justification is not a legal fiction. It is a legal reality precisely because it is based on a real (or true) imputation of real and true righteousness. Neither Christ’s righteousness nor its imputation to us is a matter of fiction. It represents the reality of divine grace.
R. C. Sproul, Faith Alone, 105-106
Moreover, the Bible asserts that the struggle with sin is not only real, but that it is also very normal (cf. Rom. 7:21-25; Eph. 4:20-24; Col. 3:12-14; James 4:7-8; 1 Peter 5:8-11). The reality is that we still live in our fleshly bodies and regularly have conflict with our three enemies: the world, the flesh, and the devil. Throughout our life here on earth, the struggle with sin will be a real part of our life. When we graduate to Heaven that struggle will end and we will receive a “heavenly body” that no longer endures the trials of sinful temptation (Rev. 21:1-4). That will be wonderful day, indeed!
The analogy of the “fourfold state of man,” then, is an extremely useful tool for understanding and coping with the believer’s ongoing struggle with sin. It gives clarity to the Christian who seeks to understand why their prevailing sins still give them such difficulty. And, it gives them confidence to continue the struggle with the temptations and trials of this world. Here it is…
Before the Fall: posse non peccare = able not to sin.
After the Fall: non posse non peccare = not able not to sin.
After Regeneration: posse peccare et non peccare = able to sin and not to sin.
In Heaven: non posse peccare = unable to sin.
Consider these helpful statements from Augustine, R. C. Sproul, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Thomas Boston as they answer the question, “Since I am born again, why am I still struggling with sin?”
As Originally posited by Aurelius Augustine (354-430):
Aurelius Augustine
“When, sunk in the darkest depths of ignorance, man lives according to the flesh undisturbed by any struggle of reason or conscience, this is his first state. Afterwards, when through the law has come the knowledge of sin, and the Spirit of God has not yet interposed His aid, man, striving to live according to the law, is thwarted in his efforts and falls into conscious sin, and so, being overcome of sin, becomes its slave…this is man’s second state. But if God has regard to him, and inspires him with faith in God’s help, and the Spirit of God begins to work in him, then the mightier power of love strives against the power of the flesh…this is the third state of a man of good hope. And he who by steadfast piety advances in this course, shall attain at last to peace, that peace which, after this life is over, shall be perfected in the repose of the spirit, and finally in the resurrection of the body. [This is the fourth state] Of these four different stages the first is before the law, the second is under the law, the third is under grace, and the fourth is in full and perfect peace.” (Augustine, Enchiridon, Chapter 118 “The Four Stages of the Christian’s Life”)
R. C. Sproul’s Summary of Augustine’s Teaching:
Dr. R. C. Sproul
“Augustine is famous for distinguishing various moral states or conditions of man both prior to the fall and after it. Before the fall Adam had the ability to sin (posse peccare) and the ability not to sin (posse non peccare). He did not possess the inability to sin (non posse peccare) or the inability not to sin (non posse non peccare). We struggle a bit with this language because the last condition which describes Augustine’s view of original sin, is spelled out with a double negative, non posse non peccare. To say that fallen man is unable not to sin means that we are able only to sin. We simply are unable to live without sinning. We sin out of a kind of moral necessity because we act according to our fallen nature. We do corrupt things because we are corrupt people. This is the essence of what it means to be fallen.” (Sproul, Grace Unknown: The Heart of Reformed Theology, 123)
From the Reformer, Martin Luther (1483-1546):
Dr. Martin Luther
“According to the apostle and the simple sense of him who is in Christ Jesus, it is not merely the lack of a quality in the will or indeed merely the lack of light in the intellect, of strength in the memory. Rather it is a complete deprivation of all rectitude and of the ability of all the powers of the body as well as the soul and of the ability of all the powers of the body as well as the soul and of the entire inner and outer man. In addition to this, it is an inclination to evil, a disgust at the good, and disinclination toward light and wisdom; it is a love of error and darkness, and fleeing from good works and a loathing of them, a running to what is evil…” (Luther, What Luther Says, 1300-1301)
From the Reformer, John Calvin (1509-1564):
John Calvin
“This is the hereditary corruption to which early Christian writers gave the name of Original Sin, meaning by the term the depravation of a nature formerly good and pure…when it was clearly proved from Scripture that the sin of the first man passed to all his posterity, recourse was had to the cavil, that it passed by imitation, not propagation. The orthodox, therefore, and more especially Augustine, labored to show, that we are not corrupted by acquired wickedness, but bring an innate corruption from every womb.” (Calvin, Institutes, 2.1.5)
From the Puritan, Thomas Boston (1676-1732):
Thomas Boston
“There are four things very necessary to be known by all that would see heaven: 1. What man was in the state of innocence, as God made him. 2. What he is in the state of corrupt nature, as he hath unmade himself. 3. What he must be in the state of grace, as created in Christ Jesus unto good works, if ever he be made a partaker of the inheritance of the saints in light. 4. What he will be in his eternal state, as made by the Judge of all, either perfectly happy, or completely miserable, and that for ever. These are weighty points, that touch the vitals of practical godliness, from which most men, and even many professors, in these dregs of time, are quite estranged. I design, therefore, under the divine conduct, to open these things, and apply them.” (Boston, The Fourfold State of Human Nature, 37)
Thomas Boston labeled the four stages of of human nature in this way: (1) Primitive Integrity, (2) Entire Depravity, (3) Begun Recovery, (4) Consummate Happiness or Misery. Nonetheless, the classic way of describing the fourfold state of man is:
Before the Fall: posse non peccare = able not to sin.
After the Fall: non posse non peccare = not able not to sin.
After Regeneration: posse peccare et non peccare = able to sin and not to sin.
In Heaven: non posse peccare = unable to sin.
What are the benefits of teaching the “fourfold state of man”?
What are the benefits of recognizing and applying the “fourfold state of man” to the doctrine of the Christian life? First of all, the “fourfold state of man” provides a comprehensive picture of human life from the beginning to the end. Secondly, it gives Christians a high degree of personal confidence that their ongoing struggle with sin will prove to be beneficial in the end. The Bible teaches that Christians can resist sinful impulses and by God’s grace “put off the old man” and “put on the new man” (cf. Eph. 4:20-24; Col. 3:12-14). This transformation comes about through the work of the Holy Spirit in the Christian’s life. Thirdly, this doctrine gives biblical counselors a significant tool in helping Christians in the midst of their personal struggles with sinful behavior. Sadly, many Christians feel helpless in gaining any ground in the ongoing struggle with sin. By understanding the “fourfold state of man” the Believer can realize—perhaps for the very first time—that they can experience victory in their own life. Last of all, this doctrine gives hope for Christians as they grow weary of this world and prepare themselves for the future reality of heaven. In summary, the “fourfold state of man” is a useful doctrine to enable and encourage Christians as to their true state in the ongoing struggle with sin. And that, demonstrates the benefits of teaching this important doctrine.
Here are four books on Puritan theology which give further insight on this important topic
Sources for Further Research:
Beeke, Joel R. and Mark Jones. A Puritan Theology: Doctrine for Life. Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2012.
Beeke, Joel R. Puritan Reformed Spirituality: A Practical Theological Study from our Reformed and Puritan Heritage. Webster, NY: Evangelical Press USA, 2006.
Boston, Thomas. The Fourfold State of Human Nature. Originally published in 1720; Reprint, Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1964.
Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. John T. McNeill, ed. Ford Lewis Battles, trans. 2 vols. Library of Christian Classics, no. 20-21. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1960.
Douglas, J. D. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Augustine of Hippo”, by D. F. Wright
“Boston, Thomas”, by C. G. Thorne, Jr.
“Calvin, John”, by W. S. Reid
“Luther, Martin”, by Carl S. Meyer
“Marrow Controversy, The”, by J. D. Douglas
“Puritans; Puritanism”, by Peter Toon
“Scotland”, by W. S. Reid
“Scotland, Church of”, by J. D. Douglas
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. 2nd Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1984, 2001.
“Antinomianism”, by Robert D. Linder
“Augustine of Hippo”, by Bradley J. Gundlach
“Boston, Thomas”, by Alan F. Johnson
“Calvin, John”, by William Stamford Reid
“Justification”, by James I. Packer
“Luther, Martin”, Rudolph W. Heinze
“Man, Doctrine of”, by H. D. McDonald
“Marrow Controversy”, by Douglas F. Kelly
“Puritanism”, by Mark A. Noll
“Salvation”, by R. E. O. White
“Sanctification”, by R. E. O. White
“Sin”, by Donald G. Bloesch
“Depravity, Total”, by Charles C. Ryrie
Lloyd-Jones, Martyn. The Puritans: Their Origins and Successors. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1987.
Luther, Martin. What Luther Says: A Practical In-Home Anthology for the Active Christian. Ewald M. Plass, ed. St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 1959.
Muller, Richard A. Dictionary of Latin and Greek Theological Terms. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1985.
Packer, James I. A Quest for Godliness: The Puritan Vision of the Christian Life. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 1990.
Sproul, R. C. Faith Alone: The Evangelical Doctrine of Justification. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1995.
Sproul, R. C. Grace Unknown: The Heart of Reformed Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1997.
Sproul, R. C. Willing to Believe: The Controversy Over Free Will. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1997.
Wallace, Ronald S. Calvin’s Doctrine of the Christian Life. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 1997.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2020 – All Rights Reserved
“Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.” Psalm 119:105
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
The Bible clearly states that the Christian is saved by grace alone through faith alone (cf. Psalm 31:1; Habakkuk 2:4; Romans 3:21-31; Ephesians 2:5, 8-10). Since this is true, then what should be one’s attitude toward the Law of God? Should the Christian reject it entirely as a set of unnecessary regulations, or is there some on-going use for the Law of God in the life of the believer? Moreover, is there some measure of restraint of evil attitudes and impulses amongst the people of this fallen world that the Law of God provides? In answer to these questions it should be noted that the Bible teaches three uses of the Law of God:
It is a light to expose our sin and point us to the Savior (Rom. 3:20; 7:7, 8, 13; Gal. 2:19; 3:21, 24).
It is a curb to restrain wickedness in this fallen world (Rom. 1:19-20; 2:14-15)
It is a rule to guide the believer in knowing how to live (Ps. 119:9-16; Jn. 14:15; Rom 3:31).
Thus, we see from these Bible passages that the Law of God has an on-going function in this world: in exposing our sin and the need for a Savior, in restraining wickedness, and also in promoting holiness in the life of the believer. It is to our benefit, then, that we study and apply the Law of God as a “rule of life” (WCF 19, Article 6)
____________________
From Martin Luther’s Small Catechism (pages 85-86):
It is a curb that restrains wickedness in this fallen world.
It is a mirror that shows a person his sin and his need for the Savior.
It is a rule that gives wisdom to the believer as to how he should live.
____________________
John Calvin
From John Calvin’s Institutes 2:7:1-17
Regarding the three uses of the law…
“The first part is this: while it shows God’s righteousness, that is, the righteousness alone acceptable to God, it warns, informs, convicts, and lastly condemns, every man of his own unrighteousness. For man blinded and drunk with self-love, must be compelled to know and to confess his own feebleness and impurity.” (Institutes 2:7:6)
“The law is like a mirror. In it we contemplate our weakness, then the iniquity arising from this, and finally the curse coming from both—just as a mirror shows us the spots on our face.” (Institutes 2:7:7)
“The second function of the law is this: at least by fear of punishment to restrain certain men who are untouched by any care for what is just and right unless compelled by hearing the dire threats in the law.” (Institutes 2:7:10)
“The third and principal use, which pertains more closely to the proper purpose of the law, finds its place among believers in whose hearts the Spirit of God already lives and reigns.” (Institutes 2:7:12)
“Now, the law has power to exhort believers. This is not a power to bind their consciences with a curse, but one to shake off their sluggishness, by repeatedly urging them, and to pinch them awake to their imperfection.” (Institutes 2:7:14)
____________________
The Westminster Assembly (1643-1648)
See Westminster Confession of Faith, Chapter 19 “Of the Law of God”
See Westminster Larger Catechism, Q.’s 91-152
See Westminster Shorter Catechism, Q.’s #39-44
WCF Chapter 19, Article 6: Although true believers be not under the law, as a covenant of works, to be thereby justified, or condemned (#1); yet is it of great use to them, as well as to others; in that, as a rule of life informing them of the will of God, and their duty, it directs and binds them to walk accordingly (#2); discovering also the sinful pollutions of their nature, hearts, and lives (#3); so as, examining themselves thereby, they may come to further conviction of, humiliation for, and hatred against sin (#4), together with a clearer sight of the need they have of Christ, and the perfection of His obedience (#5). It is likewise of use to the regenerate, to restrain their corruptions, in that it forbids sin (#6): and the threatenings of it serve to show what even their sins deserve; and what afflictions, in this life, they may expect for them, although freed from the curse thereof threatened in the law (#7). The promises of it, in like manner, show then God’s approbation of obedience, and what blessings they may expect upon the performance thereof (#8): although not as due to them by the law as a covenant of works (#9). So as, a man’s doing good, and refraining from evil, because the law encourageth to the one and detereth from the other, is no evidence of his being under the law; and not under grace (#10).
A tried and true resource for studying Christian doctrine
Every Thursday morning (9:00-11:00 AM) I have the privilege of teaching systematic theology to a group of men and women at Redeemer Presbyterian Church (PCA) here in Austin. Typically, we have 10-12 students for each class session. We have certainly grown a lot since beginning this past July when I started with one participant! Each one of the students serve in various ministry settings–as ruling elders, deacons, crisis counselors, missionary pastors, and chaplains. Moreover, they all greatly desire to “go deeper” into our beliefs, doctrines, and practices. We are using Louis Berkhof’s well-regarded Manual of Christian Doctrine (2nd Edition) as a guide, and I regularly assign additional resources as needed. Besides my teaching, we thoroughly discuss these doctrines and seek to come up with practical applications that can be useful in actual ministry situations.
For example, we recently studied the “Providence of God” and we noted how beneficial this doctrine can be in providing assurance and comfort to those who are in the midst of suffering and trials. Our Confession of Faith states it this way, “God the great Creator of all things doth uphold, direct, dispose, and govern all creatures, actions, and things, from the greatest even to the least, by His most wise and holy providence, according to His infallible foreknowledge, and the free and immutable counsel of His own will to the praise of the glory of His wisdom, power, justice, goodness, and mercy.” (Westminster Confession of Faith, Ch. 5, Art. 1) What a blessing it is to know that God directs the affairs of mankind! And, that our Lord is intimately involved in the details of our own life so that He knows even the number of hairs upon our head! (Matt. 10:29-31)
I sure would welcome your prayers as I teach systematic theology from week to week, and as I seek “to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ.” (Eph. 4:12) And, for those who may be interested in joining us, then simply reach out to me to get more information.
Moving day, during the hot Summer of 1751, was a subdued experience for the family of America’s foremost theologian Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758). Reluctantly, he and his burgeoning family were relocating from their beloved home in Northampton, Massachusetts, to begin a new life and ministry amongst the Indians on the frontier. After their bags were packed and the wagons fully loaded the entire entourage set off down the long dusty road to Stockbridge, Massachusetts—never to return to the pristine village that had been their home for 23 years. Leaving Northampton was difficult for many reasons: it was here that Jonathan had begun his full-time Christian ministry under the watchful training of his maternal Grandfather, Rev. Solomon Stoddard; it was in this very city that the initial stirrings of the “First Great Awakening” began (1735-1740); and it was here that Jonathan and Sarah had birthed and raised their twelve children. Yet, many of the townspeople wanted Jonathan Edwards and his family to leave—why would they be sending away one of the greatest theologians that America had yet produced? In order to thoroughly answer this question some of the background of Jonathan Edwards must be examined.
Jonathan Edwards was born in the country village of East Windsor, Connecticut, on October 5, 1703. He was the son of a Congregational minister, Rev. Timothy Edwards, and his mother Esther Stoddard. His parents educated him at home along with his ten sisters. Young Jonathan’s interests knew no bounds as he vigorously examined the realms of literature, physical science, philosophy, and biblical studies writing several insightful compositions in each field. In many respects, he was a childhood prodigy who eventually excelled in Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. At age 13 he was encouraged to attend the Collegiate School of Connecticut (which later became Yale University), and he graduated at age 17 in 1720 with an A.B. degree. About this same time he read 1 Timothy 1:17, “Now to the King eternal, immortal, invisible, the only God, be honor and glory forever and ever. Amen.”, and had an “evangelical awakening” which fulfilled his own deep-seated spiritual longing. Upon reflection he wrote in his journal,
“As I read the words, there came into my soul, and was as it were diffused through it, a sense of the glory of the Divine Being; a new sense, quite different from any thing I ever experienced before…from about that time, I began to have a new kind of apprehensions and ideas of Christ, and the work of redemption, and the glorious way of salvation by him. An inward, sweet sense of these things, at times, came into my heart; and my soul was led away in pleasant views and contemplations of them. And my mind was greatly engaged to spend my time in reading and meditation on Christ, on the beauty and excellency of his person, and the lovely way of salvation by free grace in him.”
This personal commitment to Christ started him on a life-time quest of thinking and writing about “true religion.” His desire to further study the Bible and philosophy was so great that he stayed at Yale College for two years of additional study. While there he was contacted to serve as a “student supply” Pastor at a Scottish Presbyterian Church in New York City; which he did for six months further confirming his call to the Christian ministry. After receiving his M.A. degree in 1723 he was hired a short time later to serve as a tutor at Yale.
Academic studies, though, were not his exclusive interest while in New Haven for he became distracted by a young lady in a prominent family—Miss Sarah Pierpont. Early on in their relationship he described 13 year old Sarah on the inside cover of his Greek Grammar with these words,
“…They say there is a lady in (New Haven) who is beloved of the Great Being, who made and rules the world, and there are certain seasons in which this Great Being, in some way or other invisible, comes to her and fills her mind with exceeding sweet delight, and that she hardly cares for any thing, except to meditate on him—that she expects after a while to be received up where he is, to be raised up out of the world and caught up into heaven; being assured that he loves her too well to let her remain at a distance from him always…She has a strange sweetness in her mind, and singular purity in her affections; is most just and conscientious in all her conduct; and you could not persuade her to do any thing wrong or sinful, if you would give her all the world, lest she would offend this Great Being. She is of a wonderful sweetness, calmness and universal benevolence of mind; especially after this Great God has manifested himself to her mind. She will sometimes go about from place to place, singing sweetly; and seems to be always full of joy and pleasure; and no one knows for what. She loves to be alone, walking in the fields and groves, and seems to have some one invisible always conversing with her…”
Winslow, ed., Jonathan Edwards: Basic Writings, 66-67
Sarah Edwards
Prior to the making of any formal plans for marriage with Sarah, Jonathan knew that he would have to provide for his new family and so he gladly received a call to be the Assistant Pastor of his grandfather’s church in Northampton, Massachusetts. This was the largest Congregational Church west of Boston, with 600 members, and it was here that he was ordained to the gospel ministry in 1726. Still much smitten with Sarah Pierpont they married in 1728 and she became his life’s partner for the next 31 years. Many years later near the end of his earthly life, Jonathan Edwards wrote a oft-quoted letter to his wife giving thanks to God for the “uncommon union” that they enjoyed through out the many years of married life. Together they raised twelve children and persevered through all of the challenges of pastoral ministry. The Lord blessed them with a large godly posterity and a much appreciated spiritual legacy.
Rev. Soloman Stoddard
In 1729 Jonathan assumed the role of Senior Pastor when his grandfather, Rev. Solomon Stoddard, retired from his pastoral charge. During his Northampton ministry, besides preaching and catechizing the children, he strongly promoted evangelical revival. Many of the townspeople had been raised by Christian parents, but they had drifted from the Puritan beliefs of their forefathers and no longer had a hunger for the knowledge of God. Jonathan’s prayers were sovereignly answered by God and revival broke out in Northampton during 1734-1737. On one eventful Sunday over one hundred new converts were received into Church membership. He called this period of awakening “the work of God,” for Edwards did not see this as a passing excitement nor something brought about through the efforts of man—it was an outpouring of God’s divine Spirit regenerating hardened human hearts. Other occurrences of revival also began to sweep through the American Colonies. Both George Whitefield (an English evangelist) and Gilbert Tennant (a Presbyterian Pastor) were used mightily of God in furthering the awakening all along the Eastern seaboard, but it was Jonathan Edwards who became known as the leading spokesmen and defender of this spiritual awakening. The return to historic Christianity that God had instigated among the American Colonists would become in time the spiritual foundation for the American War for Independence in the 1770’s.
Throughout Edwards’s ministry he defended a warm-hearted evangelical Calvinism that emphasized the sovereignty of God over all human events. He firmly resisted the attacks against the Great Awakening by the Unitarians, Deists, and skeptics. Edwards also wrote many notable books on the revival such as: A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God (1737), Some Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival (1741), and A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections (1746). Edwards wrote,
“As in worldly things worldly affections are very much the spring of men’s motion and action; so in religious matters the spring of their actions is very much religious affections. He that has doctrinal knowledge and speculation only, without affection, never is engaged in the business of religion. Nothing is more manifest in fact, than that the things of religion take hold of men’s souls no further than they affect them…I am bold to assert that there never was any considerable change wrought in the mind or conversation of any person, by anything of a religious nature that ever he read, heard or saw, who had not his affections moved…In a word, there never was anything considerable brought to pass in the heart of life of any man living, by the things of religion, that has not his heart deeply affected by those things.”
Edwards, “Religious Affections,” quoted by Lane, in “A Concise Dictionary of Christian Thought,” 188
These scholarly works provided a biblical and theological framework for the Great Awakening. He is probably best known for his sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741), which although read in a monotone voice produced anguished cries of repentance in his listeners. Here is one small section which equally features the holy wrath and divine grace of God,
“The God that holds you over the pit of hell, much as one holds a spider or some loathsome insect over the fire, abhors you and is dreadfully provoked. His wrath towards you burns like fire; he looks upon you as worthy of nothing else, but to be cast into the fire; he is of purer eyes than to bear to have you in his sight; you are ten thousand times more abominable in his eyes than the most hateful venomous serpent is in ours. You have offended him infinitely more than ever a stubborn rebel did his prince—and yet it is nothing but his hand that holds you from falling into the fire every moment.”
Edwards, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” quoted by Lane, in “A Concise Dictionary of Christian Thought,” 187)
One of the heated controversies ignited by Edwards while serving in Northampton surrounded the qualifications for receiving the Lord’s Supper. Rev. Solomon Stoddard, Jonathan Edwards’s grandfather, adopted the provisions of the “Half-way Covenant” (1662) within his congregation. It states,
“The children of Church members are members of the Church as well as their parents, and do not cease to be members by becoming adult, but do still continue in the Church, until in some way of God they be cast out; and…they are subject to Church-discipline, even as other members, and may have their children baptized before themselves be received to the Lord’s Supper; and yet that in this way there is no tendency to the corrupting of the Church by unworthy members, or of the Ordinances by unworthy partakers.”
“The Half-Way Covenant,” 1662; quoted in “Eerdman’s Handbook to Christianity in America,” 41)
This ecclesiastical agreement allowed unconverted baptized members to take the Lord’s Supper based on the profession of faith of their parents. Edwards argued that the Lord’s Supper was not a “converting ordinance” and that only professing Christians should partake of it. Open conflict erupted on all sides. Because of his opposition to the “Half-way Covenant” Edwards was forced out of the church in Northampton and eventually became a pastor to a small frontier congregation of settlers and Indians in Stockbridge, Massachusetts (1750). Some grieved the loss of Jonathan Edwards, while on the other hand many rejoiced to see him depart Northampton. Little did they know that they had rejected the greatest theological mind in America at that time.
Although physically arduous, the seven years in Stockbridge proved to be a fruitful period of reflection and writing for Edwards. He finished his definitive defense against an encroaching Arminianism, The Freedom of the Will (1750), where he shows the futility of the belief that man “cooperates” with God in the matter of salvation. The “New Birth,” he asserted, comes about solely by God’s gracious activity in the life of one who is spiritually dead. He also wrote a brilliant exposition entitled “The Great Christian Doctrine of Original Sin” (1758) challenging the popular notion that man is inherently good.
Nassau Hall at Princeton University completed in 1758
The reputation of Jonathan Edwards grew rapidly during these years of relative exile in Stockbridge. In 1757 Edwards was approached to become the President of the College of New Jersey (later to become Princeton University and Seminary). In January 1758 Edwards moved to Princeton, but the town was in the throes of a smallpox epidemic and so he received an inoculation as an example to his students. Disastrous consequences resulted and he died of a secondary infection in March 1758. Thus passed from the scene a truly great man of God who not only positively influenced his family, but who also shaped the thinking of many generations of Christians.
An Addendum:
Jonathan and Sarah Edward’s grave in the Old Cemetery in Princeton, New Jersey
On April 8, 2013 my family and I stood before the graves of Jonathan and Sarah Edwards. They are both buried together in the Old Cemetery at Princeton, New Jersey. Here is the legacy of an “uncommon union” between a husband and wife who were married for thirty-one years. Their marriage is a testimony of how two individuals, who though very different from each other, were able with God’s help to weave their lives together into an unbreakable bond. Even though they died apart from one another they exemplify a couple whom God blessed even in their deaths. For that reason they are buried together in a unified grave. Soli Deo Gloria
—Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Sources for Further Study:
Ahlstrom, Sydney E. A Religious History of the American People. 2 Volumes. Garden City, NY: Image Books, 1975.
Dodds, Elisabeth D. Marriage to a Difficult Man: the “Uncommon Union” of Jonathan and Sarah Edwards. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1971.
Edwards, Jonathan. The True Believer: The Marks and Benefits of True Faith. Don Kistler, ed. Morgan, PA: Soli Deo Gloria Publications, 2001.
Edwards, Jonathan. The Works of Jonathan Edwards. 2 Volumes. Edinburgh, Scotland: Banner of Truth Publishers, Reprint, 1975.
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1984.
“Halfway Covenant”, by Mark A. Noll
“Jonathan Edwards”, by Mark A. Noll
“New England Theology”, by Mark A. Noll
“New Light Schism”, by W. A. Hoffecker
“Old School Theology”, by W. A. Hoffecker
“Revivalism”, by M. E. Dieter
“The Great Awakenings”, by Mark A. Noll
Gerstner, Edna. Jonathan and Sarah: An Uncommon Union. Morgan, PA: Soli Deo Gloria Publications, 1995.
Gerstner, John H. Jonathan Edwards: A Mini-Theology. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1987.
Haykin, Michael A. G. A Sweet Flame: Piety in the Letters of Jonathan Edwards. Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2007.
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Lane, Tony. A Concise Dictionary of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.
Lawson, Steven J. The Unwavering Resolve of Jonathan Edwards. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2008.
Lovelace, Richard F. Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1979.
Marshall, Peter, and David Manuel. The Light and The Glory. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1977.
Murray, Iain H. Jonathan Edwards: A New Biography. Carlisle, PA: Banner of Truth Publishers, 1987.
Noll, Mark A. A History of Christianity in the United States. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman’s Publishing House, 1992.
Noll, Mark A., Nathan O. Hatch, George M. Marsden, David F. Wells, John D. Woodbridge, eds. Eerdman’s Handbook to Christianity in America. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman’s Publishing House, 1983.
Reid, Daniel G., Robert D. Linder, Bruce L. Shelly, Harry S. Stout, eds. Dictionary of Christianity in America. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990.
Sparks, Jared, ed. Lives of Jonathan Edwards and David Brainerd. In The Library of American Biography. Volume VIII. Boston: Hilliard, Gray, and Company, 1837.
Samuel Miller, “Life of Jonathan Edwards”
William B. O. Peabody, “Life of David Brainerd”
Tracy, Joseph. The Great Awakening. First published in 1842; Reprint, Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1976.
Winslow, Ola Elizabeth, ed. Jonathan Edwards: Basic Writings. New York, NY: Penguin Publishing Group, 1966.
Woodbridge, John D., ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Dr. Marcus Serven, ThM and DMin The Genevan Foundation – Copyright August, 2013 – All Rights Reserved.
It is clear when you read the writings of Rev. David Brainerd (1718-1747) that he firmly believed in the providence of God. In brief, it can be stated that he affirmed that God was involved in the affairs of men. God’s “invisible hand” directed Brainerd in a multitude of personal decisions that were necessary to carry out his missionary work with the American indians. When difficult circumstances arose, and they did many times over, he trusted that God was superintending all of the events of his life and that in the end these trials would prove to be for his own benefit, or for the benefit of others. This aspect of Brainerd’s faith gave him a deep personal assurance and a firm resolute confidence. Consider now this gripping example of God’s providential care in David Brainerd’s life:
“Tomahawks in hand, the Indians crept toward the strange tent. As they cautiously peered under the flap, their intention to kill was forgotten. There, in the center of the tent was a man on his knees. As he prayed, a rattlesnake crossed his feet and paused in a position to strike. But the snake did not strike. It lowered its head again and glided out of the tent. It was a long time later when David Brainerd, the man in the tent, found out why the Indians at the village received him with such honor as they did. He had expected that they would want to kill him. The reason for their change of heart was the report their comrades had brought of the marvelous thing they had seen. The Indians looked upon David Brainerd as a messenger from the Great Spirit, which indeed he was. In all good work the protection of God is with the worker.”
Tan, Paul Lee. “Encyclopedia of 7700 Illustrations: Signs of the Times.” Rockville, MD: Assurance Publishers, 1979, #2031
The historic Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) defines the doctrine of “Providence” in the following manner: “God the great Creator of all things doth uphold, direct, dispose, and govern all creatures, actions, and things, from the greatest even to the least, by His most wise and holy providence, according to His infallible foreknowledge, and the free and immutable counsel of His own will to the praise of the glory of His wisdom, power, justice, goodness, and mercy.” (WCF, Chapter 5, Article 1) David Brainerd was well-acquainted with these words since he had memorized them as a child. In short, he trusted God to “uphold, direct, dispose, and govern” all the circumstances of his life. And the Lord, did not let him down.
“How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him who brings good news, who publishes peace, who brings good news of happiness, who publishes salvation, and says to Zion, ‘Your God reigns!’ ” Isaiah 52:7
Brainerd’s Journal and Diary
At this time of accelerating interest in Christian missions, it is prudent for Christians everywhere to remember the life, work, and words of a sincere and diligent missionary to the American Indians. The Rev. David Brainerd (1718-1747) lived as a minister of the gospel amongst the Indians for five years until he was overtaken by the ravages of tuberculosis. During that time he conducted lengthy preaching missions with the Indians in places such as Kaunaumeek, at the forks of the Delaware River, the Susquehanah valley, Crossweeksung, and Cranbury. He preached the gospel to thousands of Indians in a time of spiritual “Awakening” throughout New England, and wondrously saw God open the hearts of hundreds. Brainerd went head to head with the pagan religion of the Indians, and saw it for what it actually was—the worship of evil spirits, superstitious slavery to local Shamans, and cruel and unkind treatment of women, children, the aged, and captives. In his Journal and personal Diary he chronicles numerous events which showed the American Indians to be illiterate and without any spiritual hope. Nevertheless, he loved the Indians as those who needed to gain the assurance of eternal life. He did not seek to change their cultural practices, except where these were expressly forbidden in the pages of the Bible. Moreover, he sought to encourage literacy and contemporary practices of farming among them. David Brainerd has become a model of the effective and dedicated missionary for our age and in the past. Let us review the specific events of his short, but energetic, life.
David Brainerd
David Brainerd was born on April 20, 1718 at Haddam, Connecticut the third son of his father (Worshipful Hezekiah Brainerd) and his mother (Dorothy Hobart Brainerd). David came from a family background of lawyers on his father’s side and of ministers on his mother’s side. He grew up in a large rollicking family of nine children, five boys and four girls. His father unexpectedly died when he was nine years old, and he was left a complete orphan by age fourteen upon his mother’s untimely death. It seemed certain that he was destined to become a Connecticut farmer working the land that he had inherited from his parents while taking care of his younger siblings. It was during these teenage years that Brainerd became increasingly interested in Christianity. He wrongly thought that by performing “deeds of religion” God would find favor in him. He transparently wrote about this period,
When about twenty years of age, I applied myself to study and was now more engaged than ever in the duties of religion. I became very watchful over my thoughts, words, and actions; and thought I must be sober indeed, because I designed to devote myself to the ministry; and imagined I did dedicate myself to the Lord…My manner of life was now exceedingly regular and full of religion, such as it was; for I read my Bible more than twice through in less than a year, spent much time every day in prayer and other secret duties, gave great attention to the Word preached, and endeavored to my utmost to retain it. So much was I concerned about religion that I agreed with some young persons to meet privately on Sabbath evenings for religious exercises, and thought myself sincere in these duties…In short I had a very good outside, though not sensible of it.
Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, 58-59.
Fortunately, God broke into the midst of his erroneous way of thinking and he was profoundly converted in 1739. It was by the mercy of God and the abandonment of “works righteousness” that his heart was opened to the transforming wonders of the “new birth.” He subsequently entered Yale College to pursue ministerial preparation and theological studies. In this erudite institution he excelled as a student relishing in his studies of theology and the Bible. As in many people’s life, there can often be a “defining moment” that shapes that person’s attitudes in a negative way or a positive way—in 1742 such an event happened to Brainerd. His biographer, Jonathan Edwards, explains what occurred,
And it once happened that he and two or three…intimate friends were in the hall together, after Mr. Whittelsey, one of the tutors, had been to prayer there with the scholars; no other person now remaining in the hall but Brainerd and his companions. Mr. Whittelsey having been unusually pathetical in his prayer, one of Brainerd’s friends on this occasion asked him what he thought of Mr. Whittelsey; he made the answer, “He has no more grace than this chair.” One of the freshmen happening at this time to be near the hall (though not in the room) overheard those words. This person, though he heard no name mentioned and knew not who was thus censured, informed a certain woman in the town, withal telling her of his own suspicion, namely that he believed Brainerd said this of someone or other of the rulers of the college. Whereupon she went and informed the Rector, who sent for this freshmen and examined him. He told the Rector the words he heard Brainerd utter and informed him who were in the room at that time. Upon which the Rector sent for them: they were very backward to inform against their friend what they looked upon as a private conversation, and especially as none but they had heard or knew of whom he had uttered those words; yet the rector compelled them to declare what he had said, and of whom he had said it…for these things he was expelled from the college.
Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, Appendix 1, 381-382.
Rev. Gilbert Tennant
Although Brainerd could have harbored ill feelings toward the Rector and the College, and allowed his frequent melancholy spirit to dominate him with sorrow, he did not. Instead, he saw these events as the divine providence of God and as a means of humbling him for future service to God’s kingdom. In addition, as a leader amongst the students Brainerd was heavily criticized for his attendance at a nearby revival meeting where the fiery Presbyterian preacher the Rev. Gilbert Tennant (1703-1764) was speaking. Rev. Tennant had become famous by his sermon “The Dangers of an Unconverted Ministry.” In this message he criticized the New England clergy for their uniform lack of evidence of regeneration. Such animosity was generated by Tennant’s sermon, which had been widely published, that the Rector at Yale had forbidden the students to attend any meetings where he was speaking. Brainerd, out of curiousity, attended a meeting and when this became known Brainerd was unable to assuage the authorities—their minds were made up to make an example of him for the rest of the students. As a result, he never graduated although he stood first in his class at the time of his expulsion.
A few years later, Brainerd actually attended Commencement Day proceedings at Yale College when he would have graduated. At the urging of others he submitted a public confession and apology to the directors of the college. They voted to readmit Brainerd so that he could continue his studies, but since he was then deeply engaged in his ministry to the Indians he reluctantly declined. For him what could have been an extremely bitter experience, was used by the Lord to further refine his character and prepare him for the hardships of missionary service. Here was a man who was willing to go and do exactly what God required of him, no matter what the personal sacrifice.
Brainerd pursued private studies in divinity through several ministers and in short order received his License to preach. Although he had several invitations to preach in established settlements and towns he felt sure that God had called him to spread the gospel to the Indians. Thus, in November of 1742 he was commissioned as a missionary of the “Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge” (also known as the S.P.C.K.). This organization had been founded in 1709 to encourage missionary work amongst American Indians. He began a permanent work near Stockbridge, Massachusetts among the Indians and settlers. His daily Diary reads not as an adventure story, living in the wilderness in the midst of heathen savages, but as a sober chronicle of preaching to a people that he truly came to love as his brothers. Here is a revealing entry from his Diary,
I live in the most lonesome wilderness; have but one single person to converse with, that can speak English (the Indian who served as Brainerd’s interpreter, Wauwaumpequunnaunt). Most of the talk I hear is either Highland Scotch or Indian. I have not a fellow Christian to whom I might unbosom myself or lay open my spiritual sorrows; with whom I might take sweet counsel in conversation about heavenly things and join in social prayer. I live poorly with regard to the comforts of this life. Most of my diet consists of boiled corn, hasty-pudding, etc. I lodge on a bundle of straw, my labor is hard and extremely difficult, and I have little appearance of success, to comfort me. The Indians have no land to live on but what the Dutch people lay claim to; and these threaten to drive them off. They have no regard for the souls of the poor Indians; and by what I can learn, they hate me because I come to preach to them. But what makes all my difficulties grievous to be borne is that God hides His face from me.
Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, 124.
Rev. George Whitefield
During the years that David Brainerd was laboring in the wilderness, the preaching of the itinerant Anglican evangelist, Rev. George Whitefield (1714-1770), was being mightily used by God to further revival in America. Those who favored the Great Awakening were referred to as the “New Lights” or the “New Side Presbyterians.” Although, Brainerd was congregational in his understanding of church polity, he did have an appreciation for the work of God’s Spirit in the revival and strongly identified with the “New Lights.” He felt that New England was being drenched by “showers of God’s Grace” through the preachers of the Awakening. Essentially, “New Light” theology was a warm-spirited evangelical Calvinism which emphasized man’s complete inability to respond to the offer of the gospel. Salvation was seen as completely of God’s grace, without a shred of human cooperation. This became the studied view and firm belief of David Brainerd. Over the five years of missionary service he labored at several locations in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. In June 1744 he was ordained by the Presbytery of Newark, New Jersey. By November 1745 he had ridden over 3,000 miles on horseback throughout the American wilderness. A typical entry in his Diary reads like this,
Lord’s Day, April 10. Rose early in the morning and walked out and spent a considerable time in the woods, in prayer and meditation. Preached to the Indians, both forenoon and afternoon. They behaved soberly in general; two or three in particular appeared under some religious concern, with whom I conversed privately. One told me her heart had cried ever since she heard me preach first.
Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, 120.
David Brainerd in the saddle
During the final two years of his ministry in the forests of New Jersey he saw “a remarkable work of grace” with the conversion of more than one hundred and thirty Indians. He baptized thirty-eight Indians and formed churches at Crossweeksung, and Cranbury. He lovingly referred to the Indians in these congregations as “my people.” Brainerd’s general pattern of ministry consisted of daily preaching, frequent spiritual counseling, and evening catechism. This revival was thoroughly described in his Journal which was published in 1746. Consider this entry from that year,
Lord’s Day, December 29. Preached from John 3:1-5. A number of white people were present, as is usual upon the Sabbath. The discourse was accompanied with power, and seemed to have a silent, but deep piercing influence upon the audience. Many wept and sobbed affectionately. There were some tears among the white people, as well as the Indians. Some could not refrain from crying out, though there were not so many exercised, but the impressions made upon their hearts appeared chiefly by extraordinary earnestness of their attention, and their heavy sighs and tears. After public worship was over, I went to my house, proposing to preach again after a short season of intermission. But they soon came in one after another, with tears in their eyes, to know “what they should do to be saved.” The Divine Spirit in such a manner set home upon their hearts what I spoke to them that the house was soon filled with cries and groans. They all flocked together upon this occasion, and those whom I had reason to think in a Christless state were almost universally seized with concern for their souls. It was an amazing season of power among them, and seemed as if God “had bowed the heavens, and come down.”
Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, 265.
Rev. Jonathan Edwards
It was in April of 1747 he had a serious bout with the tuberculosis from which he had suffered from for years. This illness finally led to his having to leave the work with the Indians that he loved so much. His younger brother, John Brainerd, eagerly continued the ministry with David’s Indian congregation at Cranbury, New Jersey. In July of 1747 he retreated to the home of his old friend, Rev. Jonathan Edwards, for recuperation. While there Brainerd became engaged to be married to Jonathan Edward’s oldest daughter, Jerusha. She lovingly nursed him during his agonizing illness, yet he finally succumbed to the effects of tuberculosis on October 9, 1747 and died at twenty-nine years of age. Sadly, Jerusha Edwards also contracted tuberculosis and she died on February 14, 1748, five months after Brainerd’s death. She was 19 years old at the time of her death. In recognition of the love they shared for each other, Jerusha Edwards was laid to rest in a grave next to David Brainerd in the Old Cemetery in Northampton, MA.
Following Brainerd’s his death, his work was fully taken over by his younger brother, John Brainerd. In 1749 Jonathan Edwards published a stirring account of his Diary and Journal which has had a deep influence on Christian missionaries through the years. Such notables as William Carey, Henry Martyn, and Thomas Coke were deeply influenced by Brainerd’s activities and attitudes. This account has become a devotional classic used by God to encourage hundreds to become missionaries in the Lord’s work. In closing, consider these stirring words of David Brainerd as he reflected on the purpose of his life, “I longed to be as a flame of fire, continually glowing in the Divine service, preaching and building up Christ’s kingdom to my latest, my dying hour.” He fulfilled his purpose, and he faithfully served his Lord unto his “dying hour.” Soli Deo Gloria!
David Brainerd’s grave at the Old Cemetery in Northampton, Mass.
An Addendum:
On July 6, 2009, we (the Serven family) diligently searched for Brainerd’s grave in the Old Cemetery of Northampton, MA. Alas, we could not find it. However, my wife Cheryl spotted a county worker and asked for the location of the grave site. The worker replied that he would be glad to show us where it was and then laughingly remarked that it was only “Bible-thumpers” who seemed to be interested in finding that particular grave. As we stood before David Brainerd’s grave I was glad to be considered a “Bible-thumper” since he also suffered the ridicule of the world for the sake of his Lord, Jesus Christ. We noted that Jerusha Edwards was buried right next to him, although sadly her gravestone has now fallen over. Nearby, can be found the grave of Rev. Solomon Stoddard (Jonathan Edwards’ maternal grandfather), and the graves of several members of the extended Edwards family. To us, this is holy ground.
Jerusha Edward’s grave is placed right next to her Beloved’s grave
Resources for Further Study:
Ahlstrom, Sydney E. A Religious History of the American People. 2 Volumes. Garden City, NY: Image Books, 1975.
Douglas, J. D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Brainerd, David,” by J. G. G. Norman
“Calvinism,” by W. S. Reid
“Edwards, Jonathan,” by Paul Helm
“Eliot, John” by J. D. Douglas
“Great Awakening, The,” by Bruce L. Shelley
“Presbyterianism,” by W. S. Reid
“Tennent, Gilbert,” by Howard A. Whaley
“Whitefield, George,” by Arthur Pollard
Edwards, Jonathan, ed. The Life and Diary of David Brainerd. Originally published in Boston, MA: 1749; Reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1989.
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001.
“Edwards, Jonathan,” by Mark A. Noll
“New England Theology,” by Mark A. Noll
“New Light Schism,” by W. A. Hoffecker
“Old School Theology,” by W. A. Hoffecker
“Revivalism,” by M. E. Dieter
“The Great Awakenings,” by Mark A. Noll
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Marshall, Peter, and David Manuel. The Light and the Glory. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1977.
Murray, Iain H. Jonathan Edwards: A New Biography. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1987.
Noll, Mark A. A History of Christianity in the United States. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing House, 1992.
Reid, Daniel G., ed. Dictionary of Christianity in America. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990.
“Brainerd, David,” by J. Conforti
“Edwards, Jonathan,” by J. H. Edwards
“Edwards, Sarah Pierpont,” by R. A. Tucker
“Eliot, John,” by G. W. Harper
“Great Awakening,” by H. S. Stout
“Missions, Evangelical Foreign,” by H. M. Conn
“Missions to Native Americans, Protestant,” by M. S. Joy
“New Lights,” by H. S. Stout
“New Side Presbyterians,” by A. C. Guelzo
“Old Lights,” by H. S. Stout
“Old Side Presbyterians,” by A. C. Guelzo
“Revivalism,” by W. G. Travis
“Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge,” by E. C. Nordbeck
“Tennant, Gilbert,” by S. T. Logan
Wells, David F., ed. Eerdman’s Handbook to Christianity in America. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdman’s Publishing House, 1983.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2018 – All Rights Reserved
