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George Whitefield: Zealous Evangelist of the 1st Great Awakening

January 22, 2024 /
Once all churches were closed to him by a jealous English clergy, Whitefield resorted to “field preaching”

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“How beautiful are the feet of those who preach the good news!” Romans 10:15

Early one Sunday morning, on September 30, 1770, after having energetically preached an eloquent two-hour long sermon the night before, that great preacher, the Rev. George Whitefield, left this world and went into the presence of his Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. The people of the First Presbyterian Church of Newburyport, Massachusetts grieved the loss. Not only in this congregation, but in thousands of congregations throughout all thirteen colonies, England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and the Netherlands, Christians gathered together upon hearing the news of his death to thank God for the life of this choice servant of God. The well-known hymnist William Cowper penned these thoughtful lines about George Whitefield’s life and ministry,

“He loved the world that hated him: the tear that dropped upon his Bible was sincere; Assailed by scandal and the tongue of strife, His only answer was a blameless life, And he that forged and he that threw the dart, Had each a brother’s interest in his heart.”

William Cowper…In Dallimore, George Whitefield: God’s Anointed Servant, 198.
With his “lazy left eye” sometimes George Whitefield was derisively called “Dr. Squintum” by his many detractors

What was it about this itinerant evangelist that inspired such lines and made such a tremendous impact on the church of the 18th Century? Who could possibly have kept up the arduous schedule of regularly preaching over forty hours each week and when challenged to rest replied, “I had rather wear out, than rust out?” How was it possible that a single man could preach such powerful sermons without any amplification to upwards of 30,000 people in outdoor settings? Such were the facts concerning this great man of God—the Rev. George Whitefield.

The Old Bell Inn, Gloucester, England

George Whitefield was born on December 16, 1714 in Gloucester, England. He was the seventh and last child of his parents, Thomas and Elizabeth Whitefield. The family made their living from running the Bell Inn. It was in the midst of the constant comings and goings of people at the Inn that George developed a love and appreciation for all types of people. When George was only two years old his Father died. As a result, his Mother ran the Inn with her children’s help, but still insisted that her children attend worship at the local parish. Early in his life George would preach “practice” sermons to his friends and siblings. He had a flair for the dramatic, and developed a mastery of illustrating Bible stories. Although he was not yet a Christian, his passion for the Word of God seemed evident even in his youth.

Pembroke College at the University of Oxford

It became Elizabeth’s aspiration that George would end up not as an Inn-keeper, but that he would attend Oxford University and become a minister in the Church of England. This lofty goal seemed impossible for they could not possibly afford such a high expense. Eventually, Elizabeth Whitefield discovered a way that her son could attend the University; he would go as a servitor meeting the needs of well-to-do gentlemen in exchange for tuition. He entered a preparatory school near Oxford in the Fall of 1730 at age fifteen, and was then formally received into Pembroke College at the University during his seventeenth year.

Both John and Charles Wesley were good friends to Whitefield during the early years of his Christian life–however later they became theological opponents…

Whitefield performed exceedingly well in his studies at Oxford University learning to read in both Greek and Latin. He was soon tested in his personal character as to whether he would follow the pattern of revelry and riotous living of his well-to-do classmates, or not. In this test he firmly resisted their invitations and gave himself over to a pursuit of holiness and study. It was because of his restrained lifestyle that he was noticed by other like-minded students and became close friends with John and Charles Wesley. This friendship was to last a lifetime and would become a significant influence upon his future ministry. The three men along with several other students were part of a private religious society which was committed to regular attendance at worship, the study of Scripture, the practice of prayer and fasting, and ministering to orphans and the imprisoned. They were derisively called by their critics the “Holy Club,” the “Bible Moths,” and the “Bible Bigots.” This group, though, became the proving ground of what, a short time later, would become known as the Methodist movement of the First Great Awakening.

Whitefield’s conversion came about through the reading of the devotional classic The Life of God in the Soul of Man, written by the Scotsman Henry Scougal (1650-1678). In this work Whitefield became acquainted with the doctrine of the “New Birth.” As he studied Jesus’ words in John 3:1-15 he hungered after this experience and earnestly prayed that God would make him “born again.” Wrongly, Whitefield thought that this could come about through deeds of self-denial, charity, and holiness. He constantly read his Greek New Testament, denied himself food and drink, confessed his sins with long detailed lists, and even contemplated giving up his association with the “Holy Club” since he felt so unworthy. Finally, after becoming extremely ill in the Spring of 1735 he fully cast himself upon Christ and rejected all efforts of works righteousness. God wonderfully opened his eyes and by the grace of God his heart was regenerated resulting in a genuine conversion. He writes of this time,

“God was pleased to remove the heavy load, to enable me to lay hold of his dear Son by a living faith, and by giving me the Spirit of adoption, to seal me, even to the day of everlasting redemption. O! with what joy—joy unspeakable—even joy that was full of and big with glory, was my soul filled when the weight of sin went off and an abiding sense of the love of God broke in upon my disconsolate soul! Surely it was a day to be had in everlasting remembrance. My joys were like a springtide and overflowed the banks.”

Dallimore, George Whitefield: Life and Times, Vol. 1, 77.

Once converted, Whitefield would habitually arise at 4 AM spending long hours on his knees reading his English Bible, studying each verb tense in Greek, and then considering the learned thoughts from Matthew Henry’s Commentary on the Bible. He made it his unique practice “to pray over every line and every word” in both English and Greek. These initial periods of fruitful study built a strong foundation of scriptural understanding that would last his entire lifetime. Once Whitefield graduated in 1736, he was ordained as a Deacon in the Church of England and began preaching in local parishes. He had a noticeable effect upon the spiritual apathy of his listeners and began to receive many invitations to speak.

Here is a fine example of an 18th Century sailing ship of the kind Whitefield traveled on to Georgia

In the midst of these successes Whitefield’s old friend from the “Holy Club,” John Wesley who was then serving in Georgia as a missionary, invited Whitefield to come to the colony as a missionary as well. After a brief time of consideration he determined to go. The crowds that attended his preaching were extremely sad to see him leave, but he was convicted that God had called him. While on ship, Whitefield let it be known that he was a clergyman, but this had little effect on the coarse behavior of the crew. Nevertheless, Whitefield asked God to give him an opportunity to proclaim the gospel—and He did give such an opportunity. As the days at sea wore on, Whitefield took it upon himself to tutor the sailors at reading and writing. He also began a small catechism class which began to grow as the days went by. Finally, he asked the Captain for permission to preach to the ship’s officers, whereupon the Captain granted him permission to speak to the entire ship’s company. A pulpit of sorts was built for him amid-ships out of thick wooden planks laid across two sturdy chairs. After preaching with great effect that day, the Captain asked him to preach again the next day. The other ships, of which there were two, jealously moved in closer to the lead ship so that they too could hear the twenty-three year old preacher. Imagine the sight of several hundred sailors, officers in their dress uniforms, soldiers in their red coats, and many passengers gathered on the three ships sailing side by side in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean! What a unique and memorable worship service that was! Eleven profitable months were spent in Georgia preaching the Word of God throughout the colony, and this one visit was to have a great effect on shaping Whitefield’s life work. Several of the colonists had died leaving orphans that desperately needed to be cared for. Whitefield’s heart went out to them and he determined to found an orphanage for them that would be called “Bethesda.” From then on wherever he preached, he called for an offering to help with the work of the Orphan House in Georgia.

Howell Harris (1714-1773)

Upon his return to England to be ordained as a Priest he resumed his itinerant preaching wherever he was invited, usually preaching two or three times each day of the week. However, burning in heart was a desire to try the open air preaching style that was beginning to bear fruit in Wales under the ministry of Howell Harris. His first opportunity came on a hill overlooking the entrance of a Welsh coal mine in 1739. The hardened and rough miners were wonderfully moved by the simple declaration of God’s Word. Whitefield could tell that he was reaching them by seeing the white furrows that their tears would leave down their smutty cheeks. Many other open-air preaching opportunities followed these initial successes with growing crowds numbered as large as 30,000 people. The First Great Awakening in England had fervently begun and the preaching of George Whitefield was at the forefront of this vast outpouring of spiritual renewal.

George Whitfield preaching to the Welsh coal miners at Bristol

Along with the continuous preaching that characterized the life of George Whitefield, there was also a vigorous commitment to starting organizations that would disciple the new converts. These groups were called “societies,” and met during the week for the purpose of Bible study, prayer, accountability, and service. It was the members of these initial societies that later became known as “Methodists.” Whitefield never intended to start an organization that would compete with the Church of England, however, over the years a determined hostility grew towards him so that in 1743 he accepted a position as the Moderator of the Calvinistic Methodists.

John Wesley at mid-career

Within the Methodist movement there developed a division over the nature of salvation. The central question was this: is each person so lost and unable to save himself that salvation is exclusively brought about by God (Calvinism), or is each person able to freely exercise his own will by choosing God in the matter of salvation (Arminianism)? George Whitefield’s sympathies lay squarely with a Calvinistic view, however, his friend and co-worker John Wesley opted for the Arminian view. Sparks flew between the two sides, prompted especially by John Wesley’s polemic tracts and verbal warnings against Whitefield’s Calvinism. To his credit, Whitefield strove to quietly resolve the issues. He wrote in his defense, “I embrace the Calvinistic scheme, not because Calvin, but Jesus Christ has taught it to me.”  Eventually, he even stepped down from his position as head of the Calvinistic Methodists so that he could become “a servant of all.” It is for this reason that John Wesley has become known as the “father of Methodism,” rather than George Whitefield.

He traveled for the rest of his life preaching throughout England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Holland, and America—making thirteen crossings of the Atlantic Ocean in all.  In America he worked with the Congregationalist Jonathan Edwards, Dutch Reformed Theodore Frelinghuysen, Presbyterians William and Gilbert Tennant, Baptists and Lutherans, and even with the agnostic scientist and statesman Benjamin Franklin—all of whom helped to shape the “Great Awakening” in the Colonies. During one six-week whirlwind preaching tour of New England in 1740, Whitefield set America on fire with spiritual revival. In forty-five days he preached over one hundred and seventy-five sermons to tens of thousands of listeners. His method of preaching was simple and direct. He had an extraordinary power to hold people spellbound from every walk of life. Benjamin Franklin estimated that he could be clearly heard in the open air by up to 30.000 people at one time. Whitefield was probably the earliest celebrity of America; wherever he went he was thronged by legions of listeners.

Whitfield was a eloquent preacher who held congregations spellbound with his gift of oratory

One famous account of his preaching was written by a farmer Nathan Cole. He reports,

“When I saw Mr. Whitefield come upon the scaffold he looked almost angelic, a young, slim, slender youth, before some thousands of people and with a bold, undaunted countenance…it solemnized my mind and put me in a trembling fear before he began to preach for he looked as if he was clothed with authority from the Great God. Hearing him preach gave me a heart wound [so that], by God’s blessing, my old foundation was broken up and I saw that my righteousness would not save me, then I was convinced of the doctrine of election and went right to quarreling with God about it because all that I could do would not save me…”

Dallimore, George Whitfield: Life and Times, Vol. 1, 541.
George Whitefield in his maturity

Whitefield suffered physically from all of his speaking and travel, but with rarely a complaint. Sometimes he was completely bed-ridden, but would revive while he stood in the pulpit and preach with great energy. Whitefield noted, “While at times he was weary in ministry, he never found himself becoming weary of ministry.” He endured repeated criticism from ecclesiastical foes of the Awakening who felt that it was so much “enthusiasm.” The common rabble abused him with interruptions, insults, and injury. Nevertheless, he genuinely sought to minister to all who came to his open-air preaching events. Some have criticized him for owning slaves and not speaking out forcefully enough on this issue. However, in his defense it must be noted that he received the slaves and a plantation as a gift from appreciative followers in South Carolina as a means of providing food and income for the Orphan House. In 1741 he married Elizabeth James, a widow ten years his senior, and enjoyed this relationship until her death in 1768. They had one child, a boy named John, who died a few months after birth. In 1748 he began a new dimension of his ministry—preaching to the nobility in London on a regular basis. These gatherings were sponsored by Lady Huntington, a generous financial supporter of the Awakening in England, and resulted in the conversion of many within English royal society. When in London he alternately preached in two massive buildings, the Tabernacle, constructed in 1741 by his enthusiastic supporters, and the Chapel, built in 1753 in an effort to reach a spiritually darkened part of the city. The ministry of these two congregations became the foundation of the evangelical movement in England for the next one hundred years. In 1768 Whitefield helped organize and promote a college for training preachers at Trevecca in Wales.

Rev. George Whitefield’s grave under the pulpit in the First Presbyterian Church in Newburyport, MA

Whitefield made his seventh and final trip to America in 1769 at fifty-three years of age. Although his health was quickly failing, his preaching was still powerful in its effects and thousands came to a saving knowledge of Jesus Christ. He died suddenly at Newburyport, Massachusetts, and is buried under the pulpit of the First Presbyterian Church. The whole nation grieved, Christian and non-Christian alike, for a man who spent himself “as a servant of all” had passed from the earth into the presence of his Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.

Here are five of my favorite books on the life and ministry of George Whitefield–each is a gem!

Resources for Further Study: 

This is the first book on Whitefield I ever read–it was eye-opening!

Ahlstrom, Sydney E. A Religious History of the American People. 2 Volumes. Garden   City, NY: Image Books, 1975.

Galli, Mark, ed. Christian History. Issue 38. Published by Christianity Today Inc.

Dallimore, Arnold A. George Whitefield: God’s Anointed Servant in the Great Revival of the Eighteenth Century. Wheaton,IL: Crossway Books, 1990.

Dallimore, Arnold A. George Whitfield: The Life and Times of the Great Evangelist of the 18th Century Revival. Two Volumes. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1970. 

Douglas, J. D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

  • “Arminianism” by Robert G. Clouse
  • “Calvinism” by William S. Reid 
  • “Calvinistic Methodism” by A. Skevington Wood
  • “Edwards, Jonathan” by Paul Helm
  • “England, Church of” by John A. Simpson
  • “Franklin, Benjamin” by Harry Skilton
  • “Great Awakening, The” by Bruce L. Shelley
  • “Harris, Howell” by Ian Sellers
  • “Methodist” by A. Skevington Wood
  • “Tennent, Gilbert” by Howard A. Whaley
  • “Wales” by R. Tudor Jones
  • “Wesley, Charles” by A. Skevington Wood
  • “Wesley, John”  by A. Skevington Wood
  • “Whitefield, George” by Arthur Pollard

Douglas, J. D., ed. Who’s Who in Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.

Dowley, Tim, ed. The History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford: Lion Publishers, 1990.

Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1984.

  • “Halfway Covenant” by Mark A. Noll
  • “Edwards, Jonathan” by Mark A. Noll
  • “New England Theology” Mark A. Noll
  • “New Light Schism” by W. A. Hoffecker
  • “Old School Theology” by W. A. Hoffecker
  • “Revivalism” by M. E. Dieter
  • “The Great Awakenings” by Mark A. Noll

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

This is a readily available biography on Whitefield’s life–its a good place to start if you want to know more!

Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity. 2 Volumes. Revised edition. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1975.

Lawson, Steven J. The Evangelisic Zeal of George Whitefield. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2013.

Lovelace, Richard F. Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varisty Press, 1979.

Marshall, Peter, and David Manuel. The Light and the Glory. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1977.

Murray, Iain H. Jonathan Edwards: A New Biography. Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1987.

Noll, Mark A. A History of Christianity in the United States. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing House, 1992.

Philip, Robert. The Life and Times of George Whitefield. First Published in 1837; Edinburgh, Scotland: Reprint, The Banner of Truth Trust, 2007. 

This fine volume is a wonderful starting place for research on figures in American Christianity!

Reid, Daniel G., ed. Dictionary of Christianity in America. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990.

  • “Great Awakening” by H. S. Stout
  • “Whitefield, George” by H. S. Stout

Ryle, J. C. Christian Leaders of the Eighteenth Century. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1978.

Select Sermons of George Whitefield. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1958.

Tracy, Joseph. The Great Awakening: A History of the Revival of Religion in the time of Edwards and Whitefield. Originally published in 1842; Reprint, Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1976.

Wells, David F., ed. Eerdman’s Handbook to Christianity in America. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing House, 1983.

Woodbridge, John D., ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

  • “Edwards, Jonathan” by Paul Helm
  • “Wesley, John and Charles” by A. Skevington Wood
  • “Whitefield, George” by Arnold A. Dallimore

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2024 – All Rights Reserved

The Pilgrim Fathers: Testimonies of the Providence of God

November 22, 2023 /
Following the earnest prayers of their pastor, Rev. John Robinson, the Pilgrims prepare to embark from Delfshaven, Holland to Southhampton, England, and thereafter to the New World.

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“Therefore do not be anxious about tomorrow, for tomorrow will be anxious for itself. Sufficient for the day is its own trouble.” Matthew 6:34

Introduction: 

William Bradford (1590-1657)

There exists a vast trove of eyewitness evidence to show the providential work of God in the life and circumstances of the Pilgrims. Three volumes in particular written during the formative years of Plymouth colony give us the the majority of the details. The first of these volumes is William Bradford’s Of Plymouth Plantation (written in 1651). Bradford joined with the Pilgrim congregation as a young man when they initially began to meet at Scrooby Manor back in England. In 1608 he immigrated along with them to the Netherlands and then in 1620 he made the journey on the Mayflower to the New World. Bradford served as the second Governor of the Plymouth Colony and was an “eyewitness” to all that happened to the Pilgrims. It is due to his personal discipline and his meticulous record-keeping that we know so much about what happened at Plymouth Plantation. His journal, On Plymouth Plantation, is a national treasure and the best known source of information on the Pilgrims and the establishment of their colony.

Edward Winslow (1595-1655)

In addition, Bradford’s friend and assistant, Edward Winslow, penned his own unique testimony about life in Plymouth Colony twenty-nine years before Bradford’s reflective volume. Winslow’s book is entitled Mourt’s Relation (written late in 1621) and it provides a colorful and optimistic report of all the adventures experienced by the Pilgrims in the establishment of their new colony. Winslow wrote his personal “relation” (or testimony) to a fellow-Pilgrim, George Morton. Morton was a passenger on the Speedwell, but had to remain in England when it proved to be unseaworthy. Winslow hoped that his short testimony of all that transpired in Plymouth, would encourage other English Separatists to cross the Atlantic Ocean in order to join the Plymouth Colony. George Morton himself and his entire family did exactly that by sailing from England in the pinnace Ann arriving at Plymouth late in the Fall of 1622.

Here is the title page of New England Memorial by Nathaniel Morton (1669)

The third volume of note is that written by Nathaniel Morton, George Morton’s son. Nathaniel served as the personal secretary to Governor William Bradford. Nathaniel Morton wrote a detailed history of the settlement at Plymouth Colony in 1669. It is simply called New England’s Memorial and has become one of the most quoted sources for assembling all of the details about the people, places, and events in early Plymouth. It records the names of the key residents, the results of local elections, and the outcome of major events–both good and bad–in the fledgling colony. One significant bit of information in New England’s Memorial is that it lists the forty-one names of those men who signed the Mayflower Compact in 1620. That list occurs nowhere else. The Mayflower Compact established the form of civil and legal government in New England. Without it the settlers who insisted they were no longer under any governing authority would have “become a law unto themselves.” But with it, both “Saints” (the Pilgrims) and and “Strangers” (the English settlers) formed a “body politic” that provided order, stability, and law.

 It is clear from reading Bradford, Winslow, and Morton’s writings that these three men firmly believed in the providence of God. In brief, it can be stated that they resolutely affirmed that God was involved in the affairs of men. His “invisible hand” directed them in the multitude of discussions, debates, and decisons that were necessary to set-up a new colony. When difficult circumstances arose, they trusted that God would superintend all of the events of their life and that in the end these trials would prove to be for their benefit. This aspect of their faith gave them personal assurance and an unwavering confidence. The historic Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) defines the doctrine of “God’s Providence” in the following manner:

“God the great Creator of all things doth uphold, direct, dispose, and govern all creatures, actions, and things, from the greatest even to the least, by His most wise and holy providence, according to His infallible foreknowledge, and the free and immutable counsel of His own will to the praise of the glory of His wisdom, power, justice, goodness, and mercy.”

Westminster Confession of Faith, Chapter 5, Article 1

The Pilgrims were well-acquainted with this doctrine. They trusted God to “uphold, direct, dispose, and govern” all the circumstances of their life. Below are twelve notable examples of God’s providence in the life of the Pilgrims. These are an amazing display of God’s providential care for the Pilgrims and their colony.

Twelve Testimonies of the Providence of God:

1. The Pilgrims spent nearly twelve years in Leiden living in relative peace and safety (1608-1620). The Lord providentially delivered them from untold misery and death just prior to the resumption of war between the Netherlands and Spain when they determined to move to the New World. 

The City of Leiden proved to be a peaceful location for the Pilgrims–but war was on the horizon!

— “After they had lived here for some eleven or twelve years,—the period of the famous truce between the Low Countries and Spain,—several of them having died, and many others being now old, the grave mistress, Experience, having taught them much, their prudent governors began to apprehend present dangers and to scan the future and think of timely remedy. After much thought and discourse on the subject, they began at length to incline to the idea of removal to some other place; not out of any new-fangled-ness or other such giddy humor, which often influences people to their detriment and danger, but for many important reasons, the chief of which I will touch upon…” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 19)

— “…for the twelve year’s truce was now over, and there was nothing but beating of drums and preparation for war. The Spaniard might prove as cruel as the savage of America, under the famine and pestilence as sore in Holland as across the seas.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 23) 

— “At length the conclusion was reached that they should live as a separate body by themselves, under the general government of Virginia; and that through their friends they should sue his majesty to be pleased to allow them freedom of religion. That this might be granted they were led to hope by some prominent person of rank and influence, who had become their friends. Whereupon, two members of the congregation were sent to England at the expense of the rest, to arrange the matter. They found the Virginia company anxious to have them, and willing to grant them a patent, with as ample privileges as they themselves had or could grant and to give the best assistance they could…With this probability of success they urged that they should trust to God’s providence for the outcome, as they had done in other things.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 25-26) 

— “So they left that good and pleasant city, which had been their resting place for nearly twelve years; but they knew they were pilgrims, and lifted up their eyes to the heavens, their dearest country, and quieted their spirits.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 49)

The Mayflower II is a replica of the original ship which carried the Pilgrims from Southampton, England across the Atlantic Ocean to New England

2. Having left the Netherlands, the Pilgrims went to England to finalize arrangements with the “Merchant Adventurers.” But they were delayed in sailing due to the Speedwell’s leaks (their 2nd hired ship) and some troublesome disputes with the “Merchant Adventurers,” their chief opponent being the contentious Thomas Weston. The Lord providentially protected them in the midst of these trials, reduced their number (like Gideon’s army), and increased their dependance upon Him as they embarked on their journey in the Mayflower. 

The departure of the Mayflower from the quay at Southampton

— “…they set sail from Southampton, about the 5th of August…” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 56)

— “…Mr. Reynolds, the captain of the smaller ship, complained that he found her so leaky that he dare not go farther till she was mended. So the captain of the bigger ship, Mr. Jones, being consulted with, they both resolved to put into Dartmouth and have her mended…” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 57)

— “So with good hope they put to sea again, thinking they would go comfortably on, not looking for any more hindrances of this kind. But after they had gone 100 leagues beyond Land’s End holding together all the while, the captain of the small ship again complained that she was so leaky that he must bear up or sink at sea, for they could scarcely keep her afloat by pumping. So they consulted again, and both ships resolved to bear up again and put into Plymouth, which accordingly was done.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 57)

— “It was afterwards found that the leakiness of the ship was partly caused by being over-masted and too much pressed with sail; for after she was sold and put into trim she made many voyages, to the profit of her owners. But it was partly due to the cunning and deceit of the captain and his crew, who had been hired to stay a whole year at the Settlement, and now, fearing want of victuals, they plotted this stratagem to free themselves, as was afterwards confessed by some of them.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 58)   

— A letter of Robert Cushman to Edward Southworth: “Our pinnace will not cease leaking, else I think we had been half way to Virginia. Our voyage hither has been as full of crosses as ourselves have been of crookedness…As for Mr. Weston, unless grace is with him he will hate us ten times more than ever he loved us, for not confirming the conditions…Friend, if ever we establish a colony, God works a miracle; especially considering how scanty our provisions will be and most of all how disunited we are among ourselves, and devoid of good leaders. Violence will break all.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 59-60)

— “After they enjoyed fair winds and weather for some time, they encountered cross winds and many fierce storms by which the ship was much shaken and here upper works made very leaky.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 62)

— “So they committed themselves to the will of God, and resolved to proceed.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 63) 

Signing the Mayflower Compact in the New World

3. After a rough crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, the Pilgrims eventually landed at Cape Cod rather than in “Northern Virginia” due to their late sailing and serious storms. The Lord overruled any problems with the weather, and potential plots against them. In the end, He providentially brought the Pilgrims to a place of safety and isolation where they could establish their colony in peace. In New England they were able to live as “free men” and worship according to the Bible.

— “But to be brief, after long beating at sea, on November 11th they fell in with a part of the land called Cape Cod, at which they were not a little joyful…Having found a good haven and being brought safely in sight of land, they fell upon their knees and blessed the God of Heaven who had brought them over the vast and furious ocean, and delivered them from all the perils and miseries of it, again to set their feet upon the firm and stable earth, their proper element…As for the season, it was winter…Summer being done, all things turned upon them a weather-beaten face; and the whole country, full of woods and thickets, presented a wild and savage view.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 64-65)

— “Nevertheless, it is to be observed, that their putting into this place was partly by reasons of a storm by which they were forced in, but more especially by the fraudulence and contrivance of the aforesaid Mr. Jones, the master of the ship; for their intention, as before noted, and his engagement, as to Hudson’s river; but some of the Dutch having notice of their intentions, and having thoughts about the same time of erecting a plantation there likewise, they fraudulently hired the said Jones, by delays, while they were in England, and now under pretense of the shoals, etc, to disappoint them in their going thither: Of this plot betwixt the Dutch and Mr. Jones, I have had late and certain intelligence. But God out-shoots Satan oftentimes in his own bow; for had they gone to Hudson’s River as before expressed, it had proved very dangerous to them; for although it is a place far more commodious, and the soil more fertile, yet then abounding with a multitude of pernicious savages, whereby they would have been in great peril of their lives, and so the work of transplanting the gospel into these parts much endangered to have been hindered and retarded; but God so disposed, that the place where they afterwards settled was much depopulated by a great mortality amongst the natives, which fell out about two years before their arrival, whereby he made way for the carrying on of his good purpose in promulgating the gospel as aforesaid.” (Morton, New England’s Memorial, 13-14)

4. The Pilgrims found fresh water and a large cache of corn and beans at an abandoned Indian village on Cape Cod. Moreover, all sides survived a hostile “1st Encounter” between the Pilgrims and the local Indians. The Lord providentially provided for the needs and protection of His people. 

— “…but they suffered most from want of water. At length they found some, and refreshed themselves with the first New England water they had drunk; and in their great thirst they found it as pleasant as wine or beer had been before.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 68)

— “Proceeding further, they saw stubble where corn had been grown the same year, and also found a place where a house had lately  been, with some planks, and a great kettle and heaps of sand newly banked, under which they found several large baskets filled with corn, some in the ear of various colors, which was a very goodly sight they having never seen any like before.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 68)

— “They also found more corn, and beans of various colors. These they brought away, intending to give them full satisfaction when they should meet with any of them, —as about six months afterwards they did. And it is to be noted as a special providence of God, and a great mercy to this poor people, that they thus got seed to plant corn the next year, or they might have starved; for they had none, nor any likelihood of getting any, till too late for the planting season…But the Lord is never wanting unto His in their great need; let His holy name have all the praise.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 69)

“Thus it pleased God to vanquish their enemies, and give them deliverance; and by His special providence so to dispose that not one of them was hit, though the arrows came close to them, on every side, and some of their coats which were hung up in the barricade were shot through and through. Afterwards they gave God solemn thanks and praise for their deliverance, and gathered up a bundle of the arrows, and later sent them to England by the captain of the ship. They called the place The First Encounter.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 72)

Arrival at Plymouth Harbor–a rough and rocky wilderness!

5. After searching for a suitable location, the Pilgrims set-up their colony at Plymouth Bay which was formerly the site of the Patuxant Indian village. The Lord providentially brought them to a place of safety where the local Indians were reluctant to go (due to a severe plague that wiped-out the Patuxant Indian tribe a few years before). 

— “On the 15th day of December they weighed anchor to go to the place they had discovered, and came within two leagues of it, but had to bear up again. On the 16th day the wind came fair, and they arrived safe in the harbor. Afterwards, they took a better view of the place, and resolved  where to erect the first house for common use, to receive them and their goods.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 73-74)

— “This harbor is a bay greater than Cape Cod, compassed with a goodly land; and in the bay two fine islands, uninhabited, wherein are nothing but woods, oaks, pines, walnuts, beech, sassafras, vines, and other trees, which we know not. This bay is a most hopeful place; innumerable store of fowl, and excellent good; and cannot but be of fish in their seasons; skate, cod, turbot, and herring, we have tasted of; abundance of mussels, the greatest and best that ever we saw; crabs and lobsters, in their time, infinite. It is in fashion like a sickle, or fish-hook…We went a land, manned with the master of the ship and three or four of the sailors. We marched along the coast in the woods some seven or eight miles, but saw not an Indian house; only we found where they had planted their corn.” (Winslow, Mourt’s Relation, 35-36)

— “So in the morning, after we had called on God for direction, we came to this resolution, to go presently ashore again, and to take a better view of two places which we thought most fitting for us; for we could not now take time for further search or consideration, our victuals being much spent, especially our beer, and it being now the 19th of December. After our landing and viewing of places, so well as we could, we came to a conclusion, by most voices, to set on the main land, on the first place, on a high ground, where there is a great deal of land cleared, and have been planted with corn three or four years ago; and there is a very sweet brook runs under the hill side, and many delicate springs of good water as can be drunk, and where we may harbor our shallops and boats exceedingly well; and in this brook much good fish in their seasons; on the further side of the river also much ground cleared. In one field is a great hill, on which we point to make a platform, and plant our ordinance, which will command all round about…What people inhabit here we yet know not, for as yet we have seen none. So there we make our rendezvous, and a place for some of our people, about twenty, resolving in the morning to come all ashore and to build houses.”  (Winslow, Mourt’s Relation, 37-38)

6. The Pilgrims suffered greatly through a terrible illness when “half of their company” died. The Lord providentially sustained them through this difficult affliction (a “dark providence”) and bountifully strengthened them to build their colony despite their great loss. 

— “But soon a most lamentable blow fell upon them. In two or three months’ time half of their company died, partly owing to the severity of the winter, especially during January and February, and the want of houses and other comforts; partly to scurvy and other diseases, which their long voyage and their incommodious quarters had brought upon them. Of all the hundred odd persons, scarcely fifty remained, and sometimes two or three persons died in a day. In the time of the worst distress, there were but six or seven sound persons, who, to their great commendation be it spoken spared no pains night or day, but with great toil and at the risk of the their own health, fetched wood, made fires, prepared food for the sick, made their beds, washed their infected clothes, dressed and undressed them; in a word did all the homely and necessary service for them which dainty and queasy stomachs cannot endure to hear mentioned; and all this they did willingly and cheerfully, without the least grudging, showing their love to the friends and brethren; a rare example, and worthy to be remembered.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 76-77)

— “The spring now approaching, it pleased God the morality began to cease among them, and the sick recovered apace, which put new life into them all; thought they had borne their sad afflictions with as much patience and contentedness as I think any people could do. But it was the Lord who upheld them, and had beforehand prepared them, many having long born the yoke, yea, even from their youth.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 82-83)

7. In the Spring of 1621 the sudden appearance of Samoset, an enterprising and friendly Indian from the Northeast, greatly surprised the Pilgrims! He proved to be a blessing to the Plymouth Colony by introducing them to Massasoit, king of the Wampanoag Tribe, and more significantly to Squanto. This was a great providence of God! 

— “About the 16th of March a certain Indian came boldly among them, and spoke to them in broken English, which they could well understand, but were astonished at it. At length they understood by speaking with him that he was not of these parts, but belonged to the eastern country where some English ships came to fish; and with some of these English he was acquainted, and could name several of them. From them he had got his knowledge of the language. He became useful to them in acquainting them with many things concerning the state of the country in the east parts where he lived, as also of the people there, their names and number, their situation and distance from this place, and who was chief among them. His name was Samoset; he told them also of another Indian, whose name was Squanto, a native of this part, who had been in England and our speak English better than himself. After some time of entertainment, being dismissed with gifts, in a little while he returned with five more, and they brought back all the tools that had been stolen, and made way for the coming of their great sachem, called Massasoit, who about four or five days after, came with the chief of his friends and other attendants, and with Squanto.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 79)

8. The timely arrival of Squanto, a friendly, God-fearing, English-speaking Indian, who knew the streets of London better than the Pilgrims, proved to be “a special instrument of God for their good, beyond their expectation” and a means of great blessing at Plymouth Colony. Squanto taught the Pilgrims the “ways of the Indians”–how to plant corn, how to harvest fish in the bay, and how to hunt deer.

— “After this he [Massasoit] returned to his place, called Sowams, some forty miles off, but Squanto stayed with them, and was their interpreter, and became a special instrument of God for their good, beyond their expectation. He showed them how to plant their corn, where to take fish and other commodities, and guided them to unknown places, and and never left them till he died. He was a native of these parts, and had been one of the few survivors of the plague hereabouts.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 80)

— “The settlers, as many as were able, they began to plant their corn, in which service Squanto stood them in good stead, showing them how to plant it and cultivate it. He also told them that unless they got fish to manure this exhausted old soil, it would come to nothing, and he showed them that in the middle of April plenty of fish would come up the brook by which they had begun to build, and taught them how to catch it, and where to get other necessary provisions; all of which they found true by experience. They sowed some English seed, such as wheat and pease, but it came to no good, either because of the badness of the seed or the lateness of the season or some other defect.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 84-85)

— “After these things [Massasoit and the peace treaty] he returned to his place called Sowams, about forty miles distant from Plymouth, but Squanto continued with them, and was their interpreter, and proved a special instrument sent of God for their good, beyond expectation; he directed them in planting their corn, where to take their fish, and to procure their commodities; and also was their pilot to bring them to unknown places for their profit, and never left them until his death. He was a native of this place where Plymouth is and scarce any left besides himself. He was carried away (with divers others) by one named Hunt, a master of a ship, who thought to sell them for slaves in Spain, but he got away to England, and was entertained by a merchant in London, and employed to Newfoundland and other parts; and a last brought hither into these parts by one Mr. Dermer, a gentleman enployed by Sir Fernando Gorges and others, for discovery, and other designs in these parts; of whom I shall say something, because it is mentioned in a book set forth ann. 1622, by the president and council for New-England, That he made peace between the savages of those parts and the English, of which this plantation (as it is intimated) had the benefit: And what a peace it was may appear by what befell him and his men.” (Morton, New England’s Memorial, 27-28)

King Massasoit and Edward Winslow smoke a pipe to conclude the peace treaty between the Wampanoags and the Pilgrims

9. In God’s providence a treaty of non-aggression was established between the Indians and the Pilgrims; with the help of Squanto (their interpreter), Edward Winslow, and Massasoit (King of Wampanoags). This pact lasted for over fifty years (1621 until 1675 when King Phillips War began). 

— “With him…they made a peace which has now continued twenty-four years. These were the terms: (1) That neither he nor any of his, should injure or harm any of their people. (2) That if any of his did any harm to any of theirs, he should send the offender, that they might punish him. (3) That if anything were taken away from any of theirs, he should cause it to be restored; and they should do the like to his. (4) If any made unjust war against him, they would aid him; if any made war against them, he should aid them. (5) He should send to his neighboring confederates, to certify them of this, that they might not wrong them, but might be likewise comprised in the condition of peace. (6) That when their men came to them, they should leave their bows and arrows behind them. After this he returned to his place, come forty miles off, but Squanto stayed with them…” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 79-80)

10. The untimely death of John Carver [the 1st Governor of the Pilgrims] brought about the providential succession of leadership to William Bradford [the 2nd Governor of the Pilgrims]. Bradford provided steady civil government for the Pilgrims from 1621 until his death in 1657.

— “This April, while they are busy sowing their seed, their Governor, Mr. John Carver, one hot day, came out of the field very sick. He complained greatly of his head and lay down, and within a few hours his senses failed. He never spoke again, and died, a few days after. His death was much lamented, and depressed them deeply, with good cause. He was buried in the best manner possible, with some volleys of shot by all that bore arms; and his wife, a weak women, died five or six weeks after him. Shortly after, William Bradford was chosen governor in his stead, and having not yet recovered from his illness, in which he had been near the point of death, Isaac Allerton, was appointed assistant to him. These two, by renewed election each year, continued several years together. This I here note, once for all.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 85)  

Elder William Brewster leads the Pilgrims and their guests in a prayer of thanksgiving to God

11. The first Thanksgiving Day celebration was observed by the Pilgrims in October, 1621. This feast was due to an abundant harvest and a desire to sincerely thank the Lord for His provision in their time of great need. 

— “Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, so that we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little outside help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, amongst other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their great king Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which they brought to the plantation and bestowed on our governor, and upon the captain and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want, that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.” (Winslow, Mourt’s Relation, 72)

— “They began now to gather in the small harvest they had, and to prepare their houses for the winter, being well recovered in health and strength, and plentifully provisioned: for while some had been thus employed in affairs away from home, others were occupied in fishing for cod, bass, and other fish, of which they caught a good quantity, every family having their portion. All the summer there was no want. And now, as winter approached, wild fowl began to arrive, of which there were plenty when they came here first, though afterwards they became more scarce. As well as wild fowl, they got abundance of wild turkeys, besides venison, etc. Each person had about a peck of meal a week, or now, since harvest, Indian corn in that proportion; and afterwards many wrote at length about their plenty to their friends in England,—not feigned but true reports.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 89)

— “And thus thy found the Lord to be with them in all their ways, and to bless their out-goings and in comings: For which let his holy name have the praise forever. Being now well recovered in respect of health (as has been said) they began to fit up their buildings against winter, and received in their harvest, and had great plenty of fowl and fish, to their great refreshing.” (Morton, New England’s Memorial, 36)

12. In November 1621 the providential arrival of a ship in Plymouth harbor, the Fortune, with thirty-five young men provided a much needed boost in physical labor for the Pilgrims. With this increased strength they built a stockade around the colony, soldiers were provided for the militia, and a general momentum increased as these young men began to serve the colony.  

Plymouth Plantation after a stout tockade was built

— “In November about 12 months after their arrival, there came a small ship unexpectedly, bringing Mr. Cushman (so much spoken of before), and with him 35 persons to remain and live in the plantation; at which they rejoiced not a little. And the new arrivals, when they came ashore and found all well, and saw plenty of victuals in every house, were no less glad. Most of them were healthy young men, many of them wild enough, who had little considered what they were undertaking,—till they reached the harbor of Cape Cod, and there saw nothing but a naked and barren place…The plantation was glad of this addition of strength, but could have wished that many of them had been of better class, and all of them better furnished with provisions; but that could not now be helped.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 90)

Concluding Remarks:

In these twelve remarkable events in the life of the Pilgrims, we witness the Providence of God on full display. Without the guidance of God’s “invisible hand” the Pilgrims would surely have perished–by the deceits of men, by the perils of the sea, or by the immense difficulties of settling in a foreign wilderness. The Lord protected them through many challenging circumstances and helped them to prevail in establishing their colony. The Lord surely did “uphold, direct, dispose, and govern all creatures, actions, and things” for the benefit of the Pilgrims. As you reflect on all that the Lord did for the Pilgrims, perhaps you can agree with me in proclaiming, “May God be praised!”

Pilgrim families on their way to worship on the Sabbath Day

Sources of Information: 

Bradford, William. Of Plymouth Plantation: 1608-1650. Harold Paget, ed. Bulverde, TX: Co-Published by The Vision Forum and Mantle Ministries, 1998.

Bradford, William. Of Plymouth Plantation (1620-1647). Samuel Eliot Morison, ed. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006.

Morton, Nathaniel. New England’s Memorial. Originally published in Boston, MA: Congregational Board of Publication, 1669; Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Ecco, Reprint,  2018.

The Westminster Confession of Faith and Catechisms. London, England: 1647; Reprint, Willow Grove, PA: The Committee on Christian Education of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, 2005. 

Winslow, Edward. Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. Jordan D. Fiore ed. Reprint, Plymouth, MA: Plymouth Rock Foundation, 1985.

Here are my three primary sources–thankfully, they are all still in print!
Here are four other books on the Pilgrims that I have used over the years–each one is a treasure!

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2023 – All Rights Reserved

Why was the Reformation Necessary?

September 22, 2023 /

— Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

The central reason why the Reformation (1517-1688) was necessary was for the recovery of the gospel. Without it, the church had become a place of darkness. The motto for the city of Geneva, Switzerland during the Reformation explains this viewpoint well; it declared, Post Tenebras Lux (Lat. “after darkness, light!”).

The Monument to the Reformation in Geneva, Switzerland — featuring: the Reformers Guillaume Farel, John Calvin, Theodore Beza, and John Knox
USS Missouri (BB-63)

Moreover, consider this analogy: The Medieval church had become like a giant battleship whose hull had become so encrusted with barnacles and seaweed that it could barely move through the water. Instead of racing through the ocean at top speed, this ship (i.e. the church) had become so burdened with the excessive weight of the “traditions of men” that the gospel message was completely obscured. The only way for this situation to change for the better was for the “traditions of men” to be stripped away so that the gospel message in its simplicity could be known once again. To accomplish this goal the Lord raised-up godly men (i.e. the Reformers) who took the ship (the church) into a dry dock where they scraped its sides getting rid of all of the barnacles and seaweed that encumbered it. Once this was done, that ship (i.e. the church) was able to race through the oceans at top speed once again.

Dr. Roland Bainton

The famous Reformation scholar Roland Bainton echoes this sentiment by explaining, “The Reformation was above all else a revival of religion. So much is this the case that some have looked upon it as the last great flowering of the piety of the Middle Ages” (Bainton, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century, 3). A more recent Reformation scholar similarly notes, “The sixteenth-century reformation was one of the most dramatic and significant series of events in the history of Christianity. It sent shock waves through the western world and changed the face of Europe forever. Its impact upon the church has sometimes been likened to a second Day of Pentecost, a crucial turning point and a moment of crisis. To some, this cataclysmic rupture in the fabric of catholic Christendom was interpreted as the labour pains of Christianity reborn. As one historian has put it, ‘No other movement or religious protest or reform since antiquity has been so widespread or lasting in its effects, so deep and searching in its criticism of received wisdom, so destructive in what it abolished or so fertile in what it created’” (Andrew Atherstone, The Reformation: Faith and Flames, 6; Atherstone cites: Euan Cameron, The European Reformation, 1).

Such learned testimonies as these bear witness to the claim that the Reformation was absolutely necessary for the recovery of the Gospel. The Lord raised-up the Reformers to accomplish that important task; and they succeeded beyond all human expectations! Soli Deo Gloria!

Here are some of my most useful books for studying the Reformation

A Visit to Hadrian’s Wall

August 6, 2023 /

Just south of the border of Scotland is the narrowest part of England. This seventy-five mile stretch runs from Carlisle in the west to Newcastle upon Tyne in the east. Long ago a stout rock wall was constructed by three legions of Roman soldiers over this entire distance by order of the Roman Emperor, Hadrian (76-138 AD. Begun in 122 AD the wall was completed after six years of labor. What was its purpose? Some historians have suggested that it was built to “keep the Scots out,” and others have argued that it was built to “keep the English in.” Perhaps, it was built for both reasons. But in any case, it was a clear statement of Roman authority within the region. It marks the frontier between civilized Roman Britannia and the unconquered Scots of Caledonia.

Here is an outline of a mile-castle where 20-30 soldiers would be stationed. Note the space for a gate where merchants and travelers could pass through. Taxes were collected accordingly.

Here are some interesting features about the wall: It runs straight across this narrow part of northern England–up and down hills, across pristine farmland, from one side of England to the other. It is not as high as it was when initially envisioned. The plan was that it would be twelve feet high, but in some places it was only eight feet tall due to a shortage of rock. Remarkably, the mortar used to build the wall is still holding the stones together nearly 1900 years after it was built! Once the Romans left Britannia in the early 400’s, the local people started cannibalizing the stones for other purposes. The rocks were a perfect building material for roads, fences, houses, barns, and churches. Today, the wall is mostly a ruin that appears from time to time along its ancient path. Throughout the course of the wall large forts, mile-castles, and turrets were constructed. There are gates built in the wall for trade and taxation. Also for defensive purposes, ten foot deep ditches–called a Vallum–run parallel to the wall on both sides. Sharpened wooden spikes were placed in the ditches to slow down marauding barbarian armies. Roman soldiers often looked at this duty as a cold and dreary posting–far from family, friends, and decent food. They felt as if they were on the edge of the civilized world; and in many respects they were!

Here is “Sycamore Gap” made famous by the film “Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves” (1991)

Besides the legions of Roman soldiers that were garrisoned along the wall, several small towns sprung up a few miles south of the wall. Who lived in them? There were Roman officials in charge of supplies, priests serving in the local temple, farmers growing food and caring for animals, plus a bevy of skilled workmen who constructed the buildings, cisterns, and roads. Moreover, the families of some of the older and more-experienced soldiers lived in these communities. These towns represented a small outpost of Roman culture and civilization in a foreign land. One such town was Vindolanda. Its ruins have provided a treasure trove of relics and information into ancient Roman culture. We visited the ongoing archeological excavation at Vindolanda and were astonished by the large number of items that were being found on this site. In particular, there are lots leather shoes–amazingly preserved in the clay-like soil of Northumbria. Excavators have also found wooden tablets with all the normal correspondence you might find in any Roman city–military reports, to do lists, letters to be sent home, grocery lists, invitations to parties, etc. There is an extensive collection of shoes and tablets on display in the museum.

The ruins of Vindolanda are yielding new treasures day by day and giving a glimpse into Roman culture

I highly recommend you visit Hadrian’s Wall and Vindolanda! Both sites give a fascinating picture of what life was like in ancient Roman culture. And for those who are stout in body and heart, hiking excursions can be arranged that follow the path of Hadrian’s Wall. We saw several groups making the trek while crossing the English countryside–its so very beautiful!

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

A Very Fine Bookstore

July 26, 2023 /
Website Address: https://edinburghbooks.net/

There are a lot of bookstores around, but finding one that specializes in Reformed Theology and Scottish church history is pretty unique. Such a bookstore actually exists in Scotland; it is called Edinburgh Books. In addition to lots of second-hand and antiquarian volumes on a million differing subjects, they have an entire room dedicated to Scottish church history. The well-stocked bookshelves run from the floor to the ceiling! I had the privilege of visiting this fine bookstore a little over a week ago. One additional benefit is that I got to go with a very old friend–Mr. Bill Potter. Bill is an absolute expert on Scottish church history, and especially on the Scottish Covenanters. I had a lot of fun discussing the value of various books that we found on the shelves, plus it led to some “sweet discoveries” that I thought about purchasing. And so, what did I actually buy?

Here we are rummaging through the Scottish church history section like two kids in a candy shop!

In answer I have to admit that I didn’t buy as much as I wanted to buy! I had to keep in mind not only my finances, but also how much room I had in my suitcase and what it might weigh with the added weight. Specifically, I was delighted to find a hardbound copy of Prof. Jane Dawson’s well-regarded biography of John Knox; Robert Shaw’s An Exposition of the Confession of Faith; a hardbound copy of Thomas Watson’s The Ten Commandments; a collection of Roger Nicole’s theological writings; and a classic work on Scottish church history by T. Ratcliffe Barnett, The Story of the Covenant. Wow, what a spectacular haul!

Overall this was a delightful excursion, and one that I hope to repeat on my next trip to Scotland! If you ever find yourself in Edinburgh this is the bookstore you want to visit. My earnest recommendation for you is taken from the life of Augustine when a small child said to him, “Tolle Lege, Tolle Lege!“–“take up and read, take up and read!”

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Scotland Trip (2023)

July 25, 2023 /
Here we are exploring the ruins of St. Andrews Castle

My wife and I just returned from a glorious trip to Scotland! Once I go through all of my many pictures, I’ll post images of some of the historic and special places that we visited. But, in the meantime let me say that I was stuck by the deep and abiding sense of history throughout all of Scotland. Where else could you go in one day and visit the ancient monastery tower of St. Rule (4th Century), the site of two significant Protestant martyrs, Patrick Hamilton and George Wishart (16th Century), the grave of the beloved Presbyterian preacher and professor, Samuel Rutherford (17th Century), and also enjoy some excellent fish and chips for lunch at Cromars (21st Century)? We experienced all of this in St. Andrews, UK. It was a wonderful treat to be there and spend an entire day soaking-up all the sights and sounds of this fascinating and historic city. More insights to come…

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

John Knox as an Inspirational Leader

March 14, 2023 /

— Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“Live in Christ, die in Christ, and the flesh need not fear death.” John Knox

John Knox understood that those who followed him needed to be counseled, encouraged, exhorted, strengthened, and prayed for. He did all of these things as often as he could and as a result God blessed his leadership abilities. Consider these comments evaluating his style of leadership by two eminent historians of the Scottish Reformation. First of all, reflect on these words about John Knox from the Scottish Presbyterian historian Dr. James Wylie:

A rendition of John Knox preaching from his movable pulpit

From the time of his famous sermon in St. Andrews, Knox has been the soul of the movement. The year that followed was one of incessant and herculean labor. His days were spent in preaching, his nights in writing letters. He roused the country, and he kept it awake. His voice like a great trumpet rang through the land, firing the lukewarm to zeal, and inspiring the timid into courage. When the friends of the Reformation quarreled, he reconciled and united them. When they sank into despondency he rallied their spirits. He himself never desponded. Cherishing a firm faith that his country’s Reformation would be consummated, he neither sank under labor, nor fell back before danger, nor paused in the efforts he found it necessary every moment to put forth. He knew how precious the hours were, and that if the golden opportunity were lost it would never return. He appealed to the patriotism of the nobles and citizens.

Wylie, The History of the Protestantism, Volume 3, 494

And now here are the comments on Knox’s leadership abilities from an American Presbyterian historian Dr. Henry Sheldon:

He was distinguished by the same vigor, decision, and determination as Calvin. With less of intellectual breadth and penetration, he combined a larger gift of popular eloquence. His bold and incisive address penetrated the minds of his countrymen much as did the burning words of Luther the minds of the Germans. As one wrote to Cecil, the single voice of Knox was more inspiring to the Scots than five hundred trumpets blustering in their ears.

Sheldon, History of the Christian Church, volume 3, Part 1, 321-322

A further example of Knox’s leadership abilities occurred in 1560 when he preached to a hopelessly outnumbered Scottish army which gathered to repel a French invasion of Scotland. Knox proclaimed the importance of trusting in God even in the darkest of circumstances. In particular, he expounded the moving text of Matthew 14:22-23 when Jesus walked on the water. Here is a sample of Knox’s preaching taken from his History of the Reformation in Scotland: 

“The danger in which the disciples of Jesus Christ stood, when they were in the midst of the sea and Jesus was upon the mountain.” His exhortation was, that we should not faint, but that we should still row against the contrarious blasts, till Jesus Christ should come:—“I am as assuredly persuaded that God shall deliver us from this extreme trouble, as I am assured that this is the Evangel of Jesus Christ that I preach unto you this day. The fourth watch is not yet come. Abide a little! The boat shall be saved; and Peter, who hath left the boat, shall not drown. God grant that ye may acknowledge His hand after your eyes have seen His deliverances.” In that sermon he comforted many.

Knox, The History of the Reformation in Scotland, 195-196

Thanks in part to his leadership and exhortation, this small Scottish army—which was called The Congregation—was able to harass and trouble the French invaders until, at last, they were forced to retreat from Scotland, having lost many men. This kind of preaching in the church of Jesus Christ is sorely needed today! Let us humbly pray that God will raise-up a new generation of men like John Knox to serve his church.  

Resources for Further Study: 

Bond, Douglas. The Mighty Weakness of John Knox. Olando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2011. 

Knox, John, The History of the Reformation in Scotland, Charles J. Guthrie, ed., Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1982.

Sheldon, Henry C. History of the Christian Church. Volume 3. New York, NY: T.Y. Crowell & Company, 1894.

Woodbridge, John D. (ed.), Great Leaders of the Christian Church, Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.

Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2023 – All Rights Reserved

John Knox on the Responsibilities of the “Lesser Magistrate”

March 14, 2023 /
Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh–this edifice was the symbol of royalty, power, and authority in Scotland

“Kiss the Son, lest he be angry, and you perish in the way.” Psalm 2:12a

— Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

One of the practical applications that John Knox (c.1514-1572), the famous Scottish Reformer, developed in his theology was the Bible’s teaching on the lesser magistrate. Knox believed that all magistrates serve at God’s good pleasure and therefore are responsible to God for upholding and enforcing his holy law (Rom. 13:1-4; 1 Pet. 2:13-14). Moreover, the subjects of magistrates are obligated to honor and support them as they engage in their duties. Knox understood that all magistrates, however, would be held accountable by God when they disobey His holy Law (Ps. 2:10-12; Jer. 37:1-21). He argues,

John Knox in his maturity

“…for it is a thing more than certain, that whatsoever God required of the civil magistrate in Israel or Judah, concerning the observation of true religion during the time of the law, the same does he require of lawful magistrates professing Christ Jesus in the time of the gospel, as the Holy Ghost has taught us by the mouth of David, saying, Psalm 2, ‘Be learned you that judge the earth. Kiss the Son, lest that the Lord wax angry, and that ye perish from the way.’ This admonition did not extend to the judges under the law only, but also does include all such as be promoted to honours in the time of the gospel, when Christ Jesus does reign and fight in his spiritual kingdom, whose enemies in the Psalm are first most sharply taxed, their fury expressed, and vanity mocked; and then are the kings and judges, who think themselves free from all law and obedience, commanded to serve the Eternal in fear, to rejoice before him in trembling, to kiss the Son (that is, to give unto him most humble obedience): whereof it is evident that the rulers, magistrates, and judges, now in Christ’s kingdom, are no less bound to obedience unto God, than were those under the law.”

Knox, “The Appellation” in Selected Writings of John Knox, 499-500

Thus, all magistrates are not to govern arbitrarily, nor are they free to establish their own laws according to their own pleasure. They must uphold the righteous standard that has been instituted by God himself, or suffer His judgements. In essence, the Bible teaches that there is a “higher law” (i.e. God’s Law) that is above any of the laws of men which may have been legislated under the magistrate’s authority (Exod. 20:1-17 ; Deut. 5:6-21; Matt. 22:34-40). This “higher law” regulates the activities of the magistrate as well as the activities of the people. All are responsible to God; both the magistrates and the people. But the magistrate bears a special responsibility before God to uphold a righteous standard. With this concept in mind, Knox addresses the magistrates with these persuasive words,

Consider, my lords, that you are powers ordained by God (as before is declared), and therefore does the reformation of religion, and the defense of such as unjustly are oppressed, appertain to your charge and care, which thing shall the law of God, universally given to be kept of all men, most evidently declare; which is my last and most assured reason, why, I say, you ought to remove from honours and punish with death such as God has condemned by his own mouth.”

Knox, “The Appellation” in Selected Writings of John Knox, 508


Therefore, Knox argues that evil and tyrannical magistrates—whether they are kings, queens, princes, nobles, or judges—in certain select circumstances, can be resisted by the citizenry. The people are not free to wantonly rebel against unrighteous magistrates. They can, however, after a lengthy season of prayer and exemplary patience remove unrighteous magistrates from their office as long as they are led by duly established “lesser magistrates” (i.e. Knox calls this the doctrine of “interposition”). In brief, only these “lesser magistrates” can lead the people in removing the “greater magistrates.” In the face of persistent evil activity, Knox insisted that it actually was the duty of godly citizens to remove evil and tyrannical leaders. As well, the lesser magistrates had the responsibility (or duty) of leading the people in removing unrighteous greater magistrates. Under these parameters the action of removing an unrighteous magistrate is not wanton rebellion, but it is a godly response to wickedness and tyranny. Dr. Joseph Morecraft summarizes this position,

Knox’s major contribution to the Reformation and to Western Civilization was his teaching on the legitimacy of resistance against tyranny, including the use of armed force by the citizenry, led by a lesser magistrate, against a tyrannical or idolatrous head of state, after all others efforts have failed. Christian citizens and lesser magistrates have the duty to remove tyrants from office. Moreover, armed resistance is justifiable, according to Knox, only if two preconditions have been met: “the first of which was the trying of other means, including prayer and patience. The second condition was that armed resistance must be led by legitimate lesser magistrates…” Knox cited Jeremiah 37 as the scriptural basis for ministers advocating resistance against tyrannical authorities. Knox was not a revolutionary, however, as his life and sermons prove. Although he believed that resistance to tyranny was every Christian’s duty, he could also say, “We mean neyther seditions, neyther yit rebellion against any just and lauchfull authorities, but onlie the advancement of Christes religion, and the liberties of this poore Realme.”

Morecraft, “Calvin’s Influence on Scotland” in John Calvin: Man of the Millennium, 270-271


It was this kind of practical application of the Bible’s teaching on resisting tyrannical rulers that resulted in the rapid progress of liberty throughout the Western world. Evil and tyrannical governments were resisted and thrown off in Scotland, England, France, Germany, Holland, and at a later time in the American Colonies during the Revolutionary War. Other theologians who followed after John Knox would further develop the details of his political theology, but the original seed came from Knox as he struggled with how to bring religious liberty to Scotland, his own beloved country.

Mary, Queen of Scots

One example of Knox’s theology of resistance to tyrants can be found in his personal relationship with Mary, Queen of Scots. Prior to Mary’s arrival in Scotland as the new regent, the Scottish Parliament in 1560 determined to adopt the Scots Confession which rejected Roman Catholicism and replaced it with the Reformed faith. As a result, the observance of the Roman Catholic Mass was condemned throughout the country. Those who led the Mass were placed under the penalty of death, and those who participated in it were liable to imprisonment. Queen Mary had been raised in France as a dedicated Roman Catholic. When she returned to Scotland in 1561, some in the Scottish Parliament granted her the concession to hold a private Mass led by her own personal Chaplain in Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh. Others in the Scottish Parliament strongly disapproved of this concession and threatened Queen Mary with arrest. In the midst of this turmoil, since John Knox had preached against her holding a private Mass, Queen Mary invited Knox to give an answer for his perceived rebellious attitude. These proved to be stormy sessions, but they served to clarify Knox’s theology and they forced Mary to come to grips with the reality that many of her subjects had an extreme distaste toward her practice of observing Mass in her own private quarters. Many Scots agreed with Knox’s view that the Mass was idolatrous, and they were offended that their sovereign—Mary, Queen of Scots—would participate in such a practice. They also worried that Mary would seek to reimpose Roman Catholicism upon Scotland, and that they would be forced to worship as she did. Many of the Scots had at that time resolved to worship God only according to the teachings of the Bible, and not by the traditions of men. Dr. Richard Greaves explains,

In September 1561 Mary inquired of him if subjects could resist their sovereigns. Knox’s reply implied the existence of a covenant between God and temporal princes. If the latter exceeded the bounds imposed on them by God, subjects had to disobey because of their duty to obey God. Princes who persecuted Protestants were, in their blind zeal, subject to a mad frenzy, and had to be restrained by their subjects until their minds became sober…He repeated his beliefs to Mary again in 1563, but explicitly warned her that idolaters could be lawfully executed by believers…Knox also called attention to the mutual covenant between sovereigns and subjects, and clearly affirmed the right of subjects to disobey if sovereigns did not fulfill their obligations, which he summarized as protection and defense against evil doers. “Consider…what it is that ye aught to do unto them by mutual contract. They are bound to obey you, and that not but in God. Ye are bound to keep laws unto them. Ye crave of them service: they crave of you protection and defense against wicked doers.” If Mary failed to fulfill her duty to her subjects, she would not receive their full obedience. On that note the interview concluded.

Greaves, Theology & Revolution in the Scottish Reformation, 141-142


Hence, we can see how the theology of John Knox had a demonstrative impact in his relations with Mary, Queen of Scots. He urged her to repent of her idolatry. She urged him to not rebel against her authority. In their clash, we witness an example of the progress of liberty in Scotland: the Parliament resolved (1) that the regent could no longer determine the religion of the subjects, and (2) that the religious convictions of the populace over-ruled the religious practices of the regent. At that time, it must be acknowledged, that many Scots desired to live as free men and women when it came to the practice of their religion. The Scottish Reformation was built upon such a strong desire.

In subsequent years the rallying cry of the Scottish Covenanters would express these same sentiments: the motto “For Christ’s Crown and Covenant” affirmed that only Jesus Christ was the head of the church (or Kirk). It was due to the efforts of John Knox that liberty in Scotland came about. His emphasis on the responsibilities of the “lesser magistrates” to overthrow tyrannical “greater magistrates” furthered the cause of religious freedom in Scotland. Beyond that, the lawful resistance of tyrants became a foundational concept that was applied in many nations over the next century in the progress of liberty.

An Addendum:

I am indebted to Dr. Joseph Morecraft, III, for his fine summary of John Knox’s view of the covenantal nature of civil government. Here it is…

“The Covenantal Basis of Civil Government”

by Dr. Joseph Morecraft, III

“Knox taught that a just civil government is covenantal, or federal, i.e. based on a series of covenants that define its authority, limitations, functions, powers, and responsibilities. According to Knox:

— The civil magistrate is in covenant with God, promising to rule according to His revealed Law and to oppose idolatry, (2 Kings 23:1-3).

— The civil magistrate is in covenant with the people, promising to rule over them righteously and for their protection, (2 Chronicles 15).

— The people are in covenant with the civil magistrate, promising to submit to his righteous government, as long as he is faithful to his covenants, (2 Chronicles 15).

— The people are in covenant with God, promising to be His faithful people, Exodus 34. This federal approach to civil government is the legal basis for our Declaration of Independence of 1776.”

Source: Dr. Joseph Morecraft III, “Calvin’s Influence on Scotland” in John Calvin: Man of the Millennium (San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum, Inc., 2008), 269-271.


Select Biography:

These four books have greatly shaped my own understanding of the responsibilities of the “Lesser Magistrates”–take-up and read!

Bond, Douglas. The Mighty Weakness of John Knox. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2011.

Dawson, Jane. “Right of Resistance” in Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith. Donald K. McKim, ed. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992.

Greaves, Richard L. Theology & Revolution in the Scottish Reformation: Studies in the Thought of John Knox. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1980.

Kelly, Douglas F. The Emergence of Liberty in the Modern World. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 1992.

Kirk, James. “Scottish Reformation” in Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith. Donald K. McKim, ed. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992.

Knox, John. “The Appellation Addressed to the Nobility and Estates of Scotland” in Selected Writings of John Knox. Kevin Reed, ed. Dallas, TX: Presbyterian Heritage Publications, 1995.

Kyle, Richard J. “John Knox” in Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith. Donald K. McKim, ed. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992.

McCrie, Thomas. The Life of John Knox. Glasgow, Scotland: Free Presbyterian Publications, 1811; Reprint 1991.

McCrie, Thomas. The Story of the Scottish Church. London, Great Britain: Blackie and Son, 1875; Glasgow, Scotland: Free Presbyterian Publications, Reprint 1988.

Morecraft, III, Joseph. “Calvin’s Influence on Scotland” in John Calvin: Man of the Millennium. San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum Inc., 2008.

Reid, W. Stanford. Trumpeter of God: A Biography of John Knox. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1974.

Trewella, Matthew J. The Doctrine of the Lesser Magistrates: A Proper Resistance to Tyranny and a Repudiation of the Unlimited Obedience to Civil Government. North Charleston, SC: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2013.


Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2023 – All Rights Reserved














Timeline of Key Events in the Life of John Knox

January 25, 2023 /
Under threat of death, John Knox boldly preaches in St. Andrews Cathedral, June 11, 1559

“In the hearts of Scotsmen…he became the Moses of the Scots; more indeed, for he was their Amos and their Isaiah too…” Geddes MacGregor

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

John Knox (1514-1572)

Who was John Knox? Briefly stated: he was born in Scotland, attended classes at St. Andrews University, experienced a life-changing conversion to Jesus Christ and a call to the ministry; he was enslaved by the French and forced to row all over the North Atlantic coming close to death while in captivity; in God’s kind providence he was released and became a diligent and esteemed pastor in England; he fled to Europe during the reign of Bloody Mary, and while there he ministered to English exiles in Frankfurt, Germany and later in Geneva, Switzerland; he studied at the feet of John Calvin. He was a husband to Marjorie Bowes, and after her untimely death, to Margaret Stewart; he was a father to two sons and three daughters. In triumph he returned to his native Scotland where he courageously advanced the cause of the Reformation as a pastor at St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh for the remainder of his life. After his death, he became widely known as an author with his gripping book, The History of the Reformation in Scotland (which is still in print). By his preaching and teaching, he was able to bring virtually all of Scotland to a thorough-going knowledge of the Lord Jesus Christ and he engendered in the Scots a stalwart resolve to advance Christ’s Kirk (or, Church) here on earth. This is why many of the spiritual descendants of Knox—the Scottish Covenanters, the English Puritans and Pilgrims, and the American Presbyterians and Reformed Baptists—uniformly thank God for the life and ministry of John Knox. The “rallying cry” of the Scots Covenanters and their spiritual children is “For Christ’s Crown and Covenant” and this motto is directly connected to the preaching of John Knox.


HIS EARLY YEARS: BIRTH AND PREPARATION (1514-1542)

Patrick Hamilton (1503-1528)
  • 1514 – John Knox is born at Giffordgate on the outskirts of Haddington, on southern plains of Scotland; some place his date of birth much earlier in 1505
  • 1528 – The young scholar Patrick Hamilton is martyred for his faith in St. Andrews–all of Scotland grieves his death
  • 1532 – Knox was sent by his father to study at the University of St. Andrews
  • 1536 – In March, John Calvin published the Institutes of the Christian Religion in Basle
  • 1540 – Knox is ordained to the Roman Catholic priesthood; and serves as a Papal notary


HIS CONVERSION: NEW LIFE & CALL TO MINISTRY (1543-1547)

John Knox bearing his two-handed sword to protect George Wishart
  • 1543 – Knox begins tutoring the young sons of two Scottish Lords open to Protestantism
  • 1543 – Knox is converted to Christ after reading John 17, he refers to this passage as “Where I cast my first anchor.”
  • 1544 – He serves the bold Scottish evangelist, George Wishart, as a personal body guard and carries a large two-handed sword to defend him
  • 1546 – George Wishart is captured by Cardinal David Beaton, quickly tried & burned alive on March 1, 1546 outside the Castle of St. Andrews
  • 1546 – In revenge, Cardinal David Beaton is murdered by several young Scottish assassins who take refuge in St. Andrews Castle
  • 1547 – Knox is called to preach by Chaplain John Rough and the people of St. Andrews Castle
  • 1547 – Knox preaches his 1st sermon in the parish church of St. Andrews Castle

AS A GALLEY-SLAVE: THE “SOBS OF MY HEART” (1548-1549)

A French Galley Ship rowed by captives–for nineteen months John Knox was one of these slaves until he was delivered!
  • 1548 – St. Andrew’s Castle falls to French forces; all are captured and enslaved
  • 1548 – Knox is forced to be a galley-slave on the French ship, Notre Dame
  • 1548 – Knox assists his friend Sir Henry Balnaves in writing a Treatise on Justification
  • 1549 – Near death, Knox prophesies that he will once again preach in St. Andrews Kirk
  • 1549 – As a result of English negotiations, Knox is providentially released in March from the galley-ship after nineteen months of enslavement
  • 1549 – Knox makes his way to England; is licensed to preach by the English Privy Council

IN ENGLAND: AS A PREACHER OF THE WORD (1549-1553)

King Edward VI (1537-1553)
  • 1549 – Knox is appointed as a preacher in Berwick, England
  • 1549 – Knox meets Mrs. Elisabeth Bowes of Aske, and her daughter Marjorie
  • 1549 – the 1st edition of the Book of Common Prayer is adopted; Knox assists Thomas Cramner in this project
  • 1550 – Knox writes Vindication of the Doctrine that the Mass is Idolatry in Newcastle
  • 1550 – Knox writes a practical treatise on True Prayer, and how we should pray
  • 1551 – He receives a formal ministerial call to Newcastle, England
  • 1551 – Elected to serve as one of six Royal Chaplains to King Edward VI
  • 1552 – the 2nd edition of the Book of Common Prayer is adopted
  • 1553 – Edward VI dies on July 6, and Mary I becomes the Queen of England
  • 1553 – Mary begins her bloody persecution of the Protestants; many flee to Europe

ON THE CONTINENT: DIEPPE, FRANKFORT, & GENEVA (1554-1558)

John Calvin, Head Minister of Geneva, Switzerland
  • 1554 – In January, Knox flees to France and takes up temporary residence in Dieppe, Netherlands
  • 1554 – He writes A Godly Letter of Warning or Admonition to the faithful in London, Newcastle, and Berwick
  • 1554 – In March, Knox visits John Calvin in Geneva, then returns to Dieppe
  • 1554 – Knox quietly enters into a binding engagement with Marjorie Bowes
  • 1554 – Writes Two Comfortable Epistles to his Afflicted Brethren in England
  • 1554 – Writes A Faithful Admonition to the Professors of God’s Truth in England
  • 1554 – In August, Knox returns to Geneva for the purpose of study with John Calvin
  • 1554 – In November, Knox is called to serve as the pastor to English refugees in Frankfort, Germany
  • 1554 – Knox befriends the young scholar William Whittingham in Frankfort
  • 1555 – In March, Knox is ousted by the unruly congregation in Frankfort over disputes about the proper forms of worship
  • 1555 – Knox returns briefly to Scotland and secretly marries Marjorie Bowes; returns to Dieppe
  • 1556 – In May, Knox begins an extended preaching mission throughout Scotland
  • 1556 – Knox writes the Queen Mother, Mary of Guise, of the need for reform in the Kirk
  • 1556 – Knox leaves Scotland, reunites with Marjorie and her mother; travels to Geneva
John Knox in his maturity
  • 1557 – Birth of his 1st son, Nathaniel, and later a 2nd son, Eleazer; both are born in Geneva
  • 1557 – Knox intends to return to Scotland, but is warned off by friends; he remains in Dieppe
  • 1557 – Writes The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women
  • 1558 – Knox returns to Geneva and works out his theory of a “godly revolution” and the resistance of tyrants through the interposition of lesser magistrates
  • 1558 – Knox writes a massive treatise On Predestination in Geneva; published in 1560
  • 1558 – Works with William Whittingham translating the Geneva Bible; published in 1560
  • 1558 – Mary I, “Bloody Mary”, dies on November 17th and is succeeded by Elizabeth I

IN SCOTLAND: ADVANCING THE REFORMATION (1559-1560)

St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh
  • 1559 – In January, most of Knox’s congregation safely returns to England
  • 1559 – Knox arrives at Leith, Scotland on May 2nd and begins preaching in Perth
  • 1559 – On June 11th Knox preaches at St. Andrews under threat of death; he fulfills his prophecy of preaching once again in St. Andrews
  • 1559 – On June 29th Knox begins preaching at St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh; opposition to reform increases
  • 1560 – On June 11th the Queen Mother, Mary of Guise, suddenly dies
  • 1560 – In August, Knox and five other “Johns” write the Scots Confession; adopted by Parliament
  • 1560 – In December, Knox’s wife Marjory, his “dear bedfellow,” dies in Edinburgh (24 yrs. old)

IN THE CRUCIBLE: SEVERE TRIALS IN EDINBURGH (1560-1570)

Mary, Queen of Scots (1542-1587)
  • 1561 – In January, the Book of Discipline is presented to Parliament and rejected
  • 1561 – In August, Marie Stuart, “Mary, Queen of Scots”, arrives to assume her throne
  • 1561 – 1st audience with Marie Stuart regarding her authority as Queen and private Mass
  • 1561 – 2nd audience with Marie Stuart regarding Knox’s sermon critical of her actions
  • 1562 – 3rd audience with Marie Stuart regarding Roman Catholic priests saying Easter Mass in her Chapel at Holyrood
  • 1562 – 4th audience with Marie Stuart regarding her plans to marry a Spanish Prince
  • 1562 – 5th audience with Marie Stuart regarding Knox’s suspected treason; he is formally accused
  • 1562 – After a stout defense Knox is unanimously acquitted of treason by the Scottish Lords
  • 1564 – Knox (50 yrs. old) marries Margaret Stewart (17 yrs. old); three daughters follow: Martha, Margaret, and Elizabeth
  • 1565 – In July, Mary Queen of Scots weds Lord Darnley; confers on him the title of “King Henry”
  • 1566 – James VI is born to Mary Queen of Scots and Lord Darnley
  • 1567 – In February, the Earl of Bothwell murders Lord Darnley (King Henry)
  • 1567 – On May 15th Mary Queen of Scots weds the Earl of Bothwell to public outrage
  • 1567 – In August, Mary Queen of Scots is deposed by the Scots General Assembly
  • 1568 – Marie Stuart, the ex-Queen, escapes her captivity by fleeing to Elizabeth I in England
  • 1570 – Civil War breaks out in Scotland
  • 1571 – An assassin’s bullet is fired through the window of Knox’s study but misses its intended target

THE END NEARS: ST. ANDREWS AND EDINBURGH (1571-1572)

An ignominious end? John Knox’s grave in Edinburgh is now space #23 in a parking lot
  • 1571 – In May, Knox temporarily moves to St. Andrews due to the Civil War that has broken out
  • 1571 – Knox finishes compiling material for his History of the Reformation in Scotland
  • 1572 – In August, Knox returns to Edinburgh and resumes preaching at St. Giles
  • 1572 – On November 24th after hearing his wife read aloud John 17, “Where I cast my first anchor,” John Knox dies in his bed at Edinburgh (58 yrs. old)
  • He is buried next to St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh, Scotland
Here are four fine volumes on the life and ministry of John Knox and those who followed him

Select Bibliography:

Bond, Douglas. The Mighty Weakness of John Knox. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2011.

Cameron, Nigel M. de S., ed. Dictionary of Scottish Church History and Theology. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 1993

  • “Book of Common Order (1564)”, by H.R, Sefton
  • “First Book of Discipline”, by J. Kirk
  • “Kirk Session”, by A.I. Dunlop
  • “Major (Mair), John”, by J. Kirk
  • “Reformation, Scottish”, by J. Kirk
  • “St. Giles”, by G.I. Macmillan

Dawson, Jane. John Knox. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015.

Douglas, J. D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

  • “Beaton, David”, by J.D. Douglas
  • “Calvin, John”, by W.S. Reid
  • “Calvinism”, by W.S. Reid
  • “Common Order, Book of”, by W.S. Reid
  • “Discipline, Books of”, by Adam Loughridge
  • “Edward VI”, by P.W. Petty
  • “England, Church Of”, by John A. Simpson
  • “Geneva Bible”, by Robert D. Linder
  • “Genevan Academy”, by W.S. Reid
  • “Henry VIII”, by Robert Schnucker
  • “James VI (of Scotland) and I (of England)”, by Henry R. Sefton
  • “Knox, John”, by Richard L. Greaves
  • “Mary, Queen of Scots”, by Henry R. Sefton
  • “Mary Tudor”, by Peter Toon
  • “Presbyterianism”, by W.S. Reid
  • “Reformation, The”, by Robert D. Linder
  • “Scots Confession”, by W.S. Reid
  • “Scotland”, by W.S. Reid
  • “Scotland, Church of”, by W.S. Reid
  • “Wishart, George”, by J.D. Douglas

Knox, John. The History of the Reformation in Scotland. Charles J. Guthrie, ed. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, Reprint 1982.

Knox, John. Select Practical Writings of John Knox. The Committee of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland, 1845; Reprint, Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2011.

Lindsay, Thomas M. A History of the Reformation. 2 Volumes. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1949.

MacGregor, Geddes. The Thundering Scot. London, England: MacMillan and Company LTD, 1958.

McEwen, James S. The Faith of John Knox. London, England: Lutterworth Press, 1961.

McFeeters, J. C. Sketches of the Covenanters. Philadelphia, PA: The Second Church of the Covenanters, 1913.

M’Crie, Thomas. The Life of John Knox. Originally published in 1811; Reprint, Glasgow, Scotland: Free Presbyterian Publications, 1991.

M’Crie, Thomas. The Story of the Scottish Church. London, England: Blackie and Son, 1875.

Morecraft, Joseph. “Calvin’s Influence on Scotland” in Volmer, Philip. John Calvin: Man of the Millennium. San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum, 2009.

Murray, Ian H. A Scottish Christian Heritage. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2006.

Reed, Kevin, ed. Selected Writings of John Knox. Dallas, TX: Presbyterian Heritage Publications, 1995.

Reid, W. Stanford. Trumpeter of God: A Biography of John Knox. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1974.

Ridely, Jasper. John Knox. London, England: Oxford University Press, 1968.

Schaaf, Philip. The Creeds of Christendom. 6th Edition. Reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1983.

Sefton, Henry R. John Knox: An Account of the Development of His Spirituality.  Edinburgh, Scotland: Saint Andrew Press, 1993.

Whitley, Elizabeth. The Plain Mr. Knox. Reprint, Ross-Shire, Scotland: Christian Focus Publications, 2001.

Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.

Dr. Marcus Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2016 – All Rights Reserved

Dr. Martin Luther on Christmas

December 23, 2022 /
Martin Luther celebrating Christmas with his family and close friends

“The true Christian religion is incarnational and thus does not begin at the top, as all other religions do; it begins at the bottom. You must run directly to the manger and the mother’s womb, embrace the Infant and Virgin’s Child in your arms and look at Him—born, being nursed, growing up, going about in human society, teaching, dying, rising again, ascending above all the heavens, and having authority over all things.” (Martin Luther as quoted in Christmas Spirit, George Grant & Gregory Wilbur, eds. Nashville, TN: Cumberland House, 1999; page 31)

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

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