“Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep’s clothing but inwardly are ravenous wolves.” Mathew 7:15
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Introduction:
What has caused the rise of heresies, heretics, and the many sectarians who have twisted Scriptural doctrines related to the person of Jesus Christ? This is certainly a valid question to ask and to ponder. Sadly, the true Church has been plagued by heresies, heretics, and sectarians ever since Ascension of Jesus Christ into heaven (Acts 1:9-11). The sudden explosion of erroneous beliefs about Jesus Christ seems to defy explanation! Cyprian (AD c.200-258), however, the wise bishop of Carthage and no stranger to false doctrines, answered this important question in the following way,
“We must guard against wily trickery and subtle deceit no less than open and obvious perils. And could anything more subtle and wily have been devised than this? The enemy has been exposed and laid low by the coming of Christ, light came to the nations, the sun of salvation shined to save mankind, so that the deaf received the hearing of spiritual grace, the blind opened their eyes to the Lord, the weak recovered strength in eternal health, the lame ran to church, the dumb prayed aloud. Yet, when he saw the idols abandoned and his seats and temples deserted through the host of believers, our enemy thought of a new trick, to deceive the unwary under cover of the name Christian. He invented heresies and schisms to undermine faith, pervert truth, and break unity. Unable to keep us in the dark ways of former error, he draws us into a new maze of deceit. He snatches men away from the Church itself and, just when they think they have drawn near to the light and escaped the night of the world, he plunges them unawares into a new darkness. Though they do not stand by the gospel and discipline and law of Christ, they call themselves Christians. Though they are walking in darkness, they think they are in the light, through the deceitful flattery of the adversary who, as the Apostle said, transforms himself into an angel of light and adorns his ministers as ministers of righteousness who call night day, death salvation, despair hope, perfidy faith, antichrist Christ, cunningly to frustrate truth by their lying show of truth. That is what happens, my brothers, when we do not return to the fount of truth, when we are not looking to the head and keeping the doctrine taught from heaven.”
— Cyprian, The Unity of the Catholic Church, art. 3; “Early Latin Theology” in The Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5.
This candid and compelling analysis by Cyprian exposes the “wily trickery and subtle deceit” of the enemy. Defeated at the Cross, the enemy “thought of a new trick, to deceive the unwary under cover of the name Christian.” And so it is, heresies, heretics, and sectarians have risen up confusing true Christians, and entangling those individuals “into a new maze of deceit.” As Jesus stated, they are “ravenous wolves” who have disguised themselves “in sheep’s clothing” (Matt. 7:15). The Apostle Peter warns, “Be sober-minded; be watchful. Your adversary the devil prowls around like a roaring lion, seeking someone to devour. Resist him, firm in your faith” (1 Pet. 5:8-9a). Therefore, every Christian should make it their goal to know the essential doctrines delivered from Christ and the Apostles so well that erroneous beliefs can be easily spotted and foiled.
A Glossary of Key Words:
— Heresy (Gk. hairesis = lit. “able to choose”; a peculiar opinion, an unorthodox doctrine, a heresy; heresiarch = a founder or leader of a heretical group)
— Orthodox (Gk. orthodoxia = lit. “right opinion”; meaning right belief in contrast to heresy or heterodoxy)
— Heterodox (Gk. heterodoxia = lit. “different opinion”; not conforming to orthodox standards or beliefs in religion)
— Apostasy (Gk. apostosia = the formal disaffiliation of, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person)
— Sectarian (Lat. secta = “party, school, faction” and sectarius = “belonging or pertaining to a schismatic sect”; excessive attachment to a particular sect or party, especially in religion)
The Ancient Heretics and Sectarians:
Below are some of the major heresies, heretics and sectarians who greatly troubled the Christian Church from its beginnings up to the 300’s:
The Ebionites (1st Century-on) — In summary, the Ebionites regarded Jesus as a man upon whom the Spirit of God rested in its fulness. In many ways the Ebonites manifested a view of salvation similar to the Judaizers criticized by Paul in Galatians (e.g. Faith in Jesus + Obedience to the Law = Salvation). H. L. Ellison explains, “The Ebionites exalted the Law, though they considered it contained false pericopes, rejected the Pauline epistles, and regarded Jesus as the son of Joseph and Mary, but elected Son of God at his baptism when he was united with the eternal Christ, who is higher than the archangels, but not divine. This Christ appeared in various figures from Adam on. His work was that of a teacher rather than savior…They…gradually dwindled away, their last remnants being swept away by the Muslim conquest of Syria.” (Ellison, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 326). The Apostle Peter boldly refutes this heresy by declaring, “He himself bore our sins in his body on a tree, that we might die to sin and live to righteousness. By his wounds you have been healed” (1 Pet. 2:24).
Docetism (1st Century-on) — (Gk. dokew = “to seem like”). In other words, Christ only “seemed like” a man. G. W. Grogan describes this heresy in the following manner: “In the history of Christian theology this is the view that Jesus Christ was not a real man, but simply appeared so. This undermines not only the Incarnation, but also the Atonement and Resurrection…The origins of Docetism are not biblical, but Hellenistic and oriental, and are due to the idea that matter is essentially evil and to a particular construction of the doctrine of divine impassibility. Alexandria was a melting-pot of Hellenistic and oriental ideas, and the home of some of the greatest Gnostic teachers.” (Grogan, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 305). For a sharp refutation of this heresy from the New Testament see the following verses: Jn. 1:14, 18; John 8:56-59; Col. 2:9, and Heb. 1:1-3, 8; 2:14-18.
Adoptianism (1st Century-on) — This is the heretical teaching that Jesus the “Man,” became Jesus the “Christ” at his baptism (Matt. 3:13-17). It has many variations but the most common view teaches that the “Christ” who joined with Jesus at his baptism abruptly left Jesus at the Cross. Essentially, Jesus died as a mere “Man” so that his saving work on the Cross is completely denied. The bodily resurrection of Jesus is also denied by this heresy. Others held that the “Christ” remained with Jesus and allowed him to be resurrected from the dead. Harold H. Rowden describes Adoptianism as, “The view that Jesus was a man of blameless life who became the adoptive Son of God. In the early centuries some maintained that the divine Spirit descended upon Jesus—a man of perfect virtue, sometimes granted to have been born of a virgin—at His baptism, and that He was deified after His resurrection. A form of Adoptianist theology was expounded by Dynamic Monarchians, e.g., Theodotus and Paul of Samosata.” (Rowden, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 13). Jesus himself destroys this false narrative by declaring, “‘I am the Alpha and the Omega,’ says the Lord God, ‘who is and who was and who is to come, the Almighty’” (Rev. 1:8).
Gnosticism — This movement represents Greek philosophy at its highest level. The Gnostics (Gk. gnosis = knowledge) maintained that only initiates who paid a fee to the priests of the Greek “mystery religions” could understand the truth about spiritual matters. The essential idea of Gnosticism was that all “flesh” (Gk. sarx) was evil, and that all “spirit” (Gk. pneuma) was righteous. Therefore, a genuine “seeker” of spiritual truth could find the deep realities of life through a series of personal experiences, either by self-indulgence in sensuality (Hedonism), or by self-denial from all pleasure (Asceticism). It was the “personal experience” of the “secret knowledge” that was the measure of all reality to the devotee of Gnosticism. Applied to Christianity, Gnosticism doubted the full deity of Jesus Christ, and at other times doubted the full humanity of Jesus Christ. The Apostle John writes rebuttals against both errors—the denial of Jesus Christ’s deity (cf. 1 John 2:22), and the denial of Jesus Christ’s humanity (cf. 1 John 4:2-3). Either way, the views of the Gnostic Christians can only be described as heresy. John certainly had the Gnostics in mind when he wrote John 1:1, and 1:14-18. The Greek term “Word” (Gk. Logos) is a Gnostic term that represents an impersonal idea that bridges the gap between God and humanity. John co-opted this term, “the Word,” by declaring that “the Word became flesh and dwelt among us.” Such a bold proclamation would be inconceivable to the serious Gnostic! This, however, was divine truth to the Christian believer. The Apostle John, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, “took every thought captive” by strategically utilizing the very terms of Gnosticism and giving them a Christian meaning (cf. 2 Cor. 10:3-6). Moreover, the Apostle Paul warns, “See to it that no one takes you captive by philosophy and empty deceit, according to human tradition, according to the elemental spirits of the world, and not according to Christ” (Col. 2:8).
Marcion (AD 85-160) — A Roman Presbyter and in time declared to be a heretic. He was raised in Sinope on the Black Sea, but traveled to Rome and settled there in the 140’s. He stressed that the god of the Old Testament was somewhat “evil” and the God of the New Testament was perfectly “good.” Marcion also rejected the full humanity of Jesus, preferring instead to think of Jesus as only appearing to be like a man (i.e Docetism). Hence, Marcion rejected the birth narratives of the gospels in Matthew and Luke, and claimed that Jesus appeared as a fully-grown man in the fifteenth year of Tiberius. For these heresies Marcion was excommunicated from the church of Rome in AD 144. W. Ward Gasque wrote, “Marcion stressed the radical nature of Christianity vis-a-vis Judaism. In his theology there existed a total discontinuity between the OT and the NT, between Israel and the church, and even between the god of the OT and the Father of Jesus. Jesus came to reveal the true God, who was totally unknown up to the Incarnation. The god of the OT, the demiurge, an inferior being who created the material world and ruled over it, was not exactly an evil being, but he was not good in the same sense as the God and Father of Jesus, a God of love and grace” (Gasque, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 629-630). In approximately AD 150 Marcion set forth a canon of approved writings for his followers which was in contrast to the widely-accepted books of the New Testament. This led later to efforts by the historic-orthodox Church to clearly set forth the twenty-seven books of the New Testament as an officially approved list (i.e a “Canon”) at the Council of Hippo (AD 393) and later at the Council of Carthage (AD 397). Polycarp the bishop of Smyrna steadfastly referred to Marcion as “The first-born of Satan,” and both Tertullian (Against Marcion) and Irenaeus (Against Heresies) wrote extensive treatises against Marcion and his heretical notions. By the end of the second century Marcion’s movement lost its strength and it ultimately disappeared. The Apostle Paul instructed the churches to, “…avoid foolish controversies, genealogies, dissensions, and quarrels about the law, for they are unprofitable and worthless. As for a person who stirs up division, after warning him once and then twice, have nothing more to do with him, knowing that such a person is warped and sinful; he is self-condemned” (Tit. 3:9-10).
Montanus (he started prophesying in AD 157) — Montanus was a self-proclaimed prophet from Phrygia who advocated a life of rigid asceticism. He associated with two prophetesses by the name of Maximilla and Priscilla. All three prophets claimed to be mouth-pieces of the Paraclete (Gk. paracletes, or the Holy Spirit) and brought forth the New Prophecy. They also claimed that they could forgive sins. Montanus had a very popular following, but eventually ran into trouble with the church authorities and was excommunicated. At the Synod of Iconium in AD 230 it was ruled that Monanist baptism was not valid. In many ways, Montanus could be classified as a fanatic, or sectarian, rather than a heretic; although it must be admitted that he was excommunicated from the true Church. His teachings drew many away from Christ to more of an “elitist mentality” that put his followers over and above other Christians. Clearly, this was not the teaching of Jesus Christ who urged his disciples to a life of humility and service to others (John 13:12-16). Central to Montanist doctrine was the imminency of Christ’s Return, the forbidding of remarriage (one marriage only), the keeping of regular fasts, withdrawal from the world, and being willing to die as a martyr. The saying of “Do not hope to die in bed…but as a martyr” was typical of the high commitment to self-denial practiced by his followers. Tertullian of Carthage was one of the more distinguished followers of Montanism. Overtime, however, Tertullian reformed the excesses of Montanism, so much so that the entire movement became known as Tertullianism. The Apostle Paul warns, “But even if we or an angel from heaven should preach to you a gospel contrary to the one we preached to you, let him be accursed” (Col. 1:8).
Novatian (c.200-d.258) — Novatian founded a small puritanical sect in Rome which took a hard line against those who had lapsed under persecution. The Novatianists prided themselves on being the “pure ones” (Lat. cathari) and therefore did not associate with many other Christians, especially those who had forsaken Christ during the persecutions (Lat. lapsi). In this way they were schismatic. H. D. McDonald writes, “Novatian demanded that the Christians who had apostatized during the Decian persecutions (AD 249-250) should not be welcomed back into the fellowship of the church. Novatian’s group formed themselves into their own party, under strict discipline. This separatist movement continued for many centuries. Their orthodoxy was never in doubt.” (McDonald, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 717). Novation was a gifted theologian who was known for his writings in favor of the Trinity. He was strongly orthodox in theology, but extremely puritanical in practice. As a result, the Novatianists formed their own churches and separated from churches they considered to be “impure.” Novatian died as a martyr during the Valerian persecution in AD 258. The Apostle Paul exhorts, “Therefore let no one pass judgement on you in questions of food and drink, or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath. These are a shadow of the things to come, but the substance belongs to Christ” (Col. 2:16-17).
Mani (AD c.216-277) — Mani was the founder and leader of the group called the Manichaeans. Mani lived in Babylonia, but traveled extensively throughout Persia, India, and the Roman Empire once he found favor with the Persian King. His peculiar doctrines were a mixture of Persian religions, astrology, and some elements of biblical Christianity. He asserted that Jesus was “the Brilliant Light,” but he denied Jesus’ full deity. Asceticism was a hallmark of this group. J. N. Birdsall comments about Manichaean beliefs with this description, “The doctrine though claimed as a system is highly mythological. Two principles, Light and Dark, God and Matter, are eternal. The invasion of the Light led to the saving expedition of the Primeval Man, some of whose substance remained imprisoned in matter after his return. The creation of sun, moon, stars, and plant life was part of a plan to redeem this imprisoned Light. The appearance of Adam was a counterplot to retain Light imprisoned, through reproduction: “Jesus the Brilliant Light” redeemed him by a vision. The Jesus of the gospels is but an instance of the suffering of imprisoned Light in matter. The religious practice of Mani’s followers (among whom the “elect” or “righteous” ate no meat and abstained from sexual life) was an ascetic means of continuing the process of gradual liberation.” (Birdsall, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 624-625). In some ways, the Manichaeans are forerunners of the modern-day Bahai movement which has a similar set of beliefs. Augustine spent many years as a follower of the teachings of Mani before he finally came to a saving knowledge of Jesus Christ. In particular, he could never reconcile the dualistic nature of Light and Dark (i.e. Good and Evil). He slowly came to realize from his study of the Holy Scriptures that God is entirely good and righteous all together (1 Jn. 1:5; Jam. 1:13-15), that the “problem with evil” (Lat. theodicy) is thoroughly explained by the Fall of Adam and Eve (Gen. 3:1-24), and that the passing of the sin nature (the Imputation of Sins) to all of their descendants is a necessary consequence of the Fall (Rom. 5:12-19). Every human being inherits the sin nature (Original Sin) of Adam and Even, and each person is responsible for their own sins (Rom. 1:18-20; Eph. 2:1-3). The Prophets and the Apostles declare that it is only by the gracious substitutionary work of Jesus Christ on the Cross that a person can be delivered from the penalty and power of sin (Isa. 53:4-6; Rom. 3:23-26; Eph. 2:4-10; Tit. 3:4-7; 1 Pet. 2:24-25; 1 Jn. 1:7 and 2:1-2).
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Part 2 of “Ancient Heretics and Sectarians” is under preparation and will cover heresies from AD 300 up to AD 451 (the Council of Chalcedon).
Resources for Further Study:
Bettenson, Henry and Chris Maunder, eds. Documents of the Christian Church. Fourth Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.
Brown, Harold O. J. Heresies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy from the Apostles to the Present. New York, NY: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1984.
Christy-Murray, David. A History of Heresy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
- “Adoptianism” by Harold H. Rowdon
- “Apostasy” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
- “Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
- “Cyprian” by David F. Wright
- “Docetism” by G. W. Grogan
- “Ebonites” by H. L. Ellison
- “Gnosticism” by Edwin Yamauchi
- “Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
- “Irenaeus” by David F. Wright
- “Jesus Christ” by F. F. Bruce
- “Justin Martyr” by G. L. Carey
- “Lapsi” by David F. Wright
- “Manichaeism” by J. N. Birdsall
- “Marcion” by W. Ward Gasque
- “Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
- “Monarchianism” by Samual J. Mikolaski
- “Montanism” by H. D. McDonald
- “Novatus” by J. G. G. Norman
- “Orthodoxy” by Keith J. Hardman
- “Tertullian” by David F. Wright
Dowley, Tim. The History of Christianity: A Lion Handbook. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishing, 1990.
Greenslade, Stanley L., ed. Early Latin Theology: Selections From Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose and Jerome. Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1956.
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Kelly, John N. D. Early Christian Doctrines. Second Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1958.
Lane, Anthony N. S. A Concise History of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.
Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
- “John and the End of the Apostolic Age” by Leon Morris
- “Paul and the Missionary Enterprise” by F. F. Bruce
- “Cyprian of Carthage” by Michael A. Smith
- “Irenaeus: Adversary of the Gnostics” by Everett Ferguson
- “Justin Martyr: Defender of the Faith” by Edwin M. Yamauchi
- “Tertullian and Western Theology” by Gerald L. Bray
Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Bloomington, IN: Warhorn Media, Reprint, 2014.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
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