Van Til, Henry R. The Calvinistic Concept of Culture. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1959. Forward by Richard J. Mouw, 2001. [245 pages]
Reviewed by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
I have wanted to read this particular book for a very long time, but never made it a priority to do so. Having now carefully read it through, I can see that this is a very deep volume that represents Henry R. Van Til’s entire life work. It certainly bears reading a second time, and perhaps even a third time, to fully comprehend its message. The concepts that are presented on cultural transformation from Augustine (The City of God), Calvin (Institutes of the Christian Religion), and Kuyper (Lectures on Calvinism) follow in a straight line; with each man’s thoughts neatly building upon the others. However, when Van Til includes the blistering critique of Klaas Schilder (Wat is de Hemel) against the central theme of God’s common grace (i.e. Kuyper); it is a strategy that leaves me thoroughly puzzled. I believe that this juxtaposition of views on common grace weakens the overall progress of the book and its conclusion. In my opinion, Schilder’s critique should have been left out entirely, or positioned in some other manner.
Nevertheless, despite this flaw (and I do not believe it is a fatal flaw), The Calvinistic Concept of Culture retains its place as one of the seminal books of the twentieth century to set forth a theology of culture. It should surely be read alongside other similar books, some of which do not share Van Til’s conservative biblical theology, such as: Jacque Ellul’s Meaning of the City, H. Richard Neibuhr’s Christ and Culture, and Paul Tillich’s Theology of Culture. There are, of course, several contemporary evangelical authors who embrace Van Til’s conservative biblical theology that could also be read with profit on this subject, such as: D. A. Carson’s Christ and Culture Revisited; Charles Kraft’s Christianity in Culture; Francis Schaeffer’s How should We Then Live?; and David F. Well’s penetrating four volume analysis and critique of the modern church: (1) No Place for Truth or Whatever Happened to Evangelical Theology? [1993], (2) God in the Wasteland: The Reality of Truth in a World of Fading Dreams [1994], (3) Losing Our Virtue: Why the Church Must Recover Its Moral Vision [1998], and (4) Above All Earthly Powers: Christ in a Postmodern World [2005]). Beyond this, William A. Dyrness has written a very helpful introductory article on “Christianity and Culture” in the Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, 2nd Edition (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2001). This fine article helped me to get my bearings on this complex subject.
Professor Henry R. Van Til
It should be stated first off, that the author of The Calvinistic Concept of Culture was Calvin College Professor, Henry R. Van Til (Th.M. degree from Westminster), the nephew of the better-known Dr. Cornelius Van Til (Professor of Apologetics at Westminster Theological Seminary). Professor Henry R. Van Til died suddenly in 1961 at the age of 55 (1906-1961). This was his first and only book, which was distilled from his extensive class notes, and written while on sabbatical. Throughout, Van Til gives a large number of illustrations showing the positive historical impact of Calvinism. He also illuminates the underlying presuppositions that motivate the Calvinist to influence this fallen world with the gospel: (1) our need to obey the creation mandate (Genesis 1:27), (2) our need to fulfill the cultural mandate (Genesis 1:28; Matthew 28:18-20), and (3) our need to claim all things for our reigning King, the Lord Jesus Christ (1 Corinthians 10:31; Colossians 1:15-20, 3:17).
Dr. Richard J. Mouw, formerly President of Fuller Theological Seminary, writes an insightful Forward which reveals, in summary, the major points of Van Til’s thesis. Mouw introduces the subject of cultural transformation in this way,
In a world distorted by sin, redeemed people must seek to bring all areas of human life into conformity with the Lord of creation. The mandate is all-inclusive. As Abraham Kuyper—whose influences looms large in this book—once declared, “There is not a square inch in the whole domain of our human existence over which Christ, who is sovereign over all, does not cry ‘Mine!’” And the Lord who claims all culture as part of his kingdom also calls his redeemed people to show forth his divine rule in the patterns in their cultural involvement. Here the standard Calvinistic discussion of divine cultural election is extended to emphasize the point of that election: believers who have been elected by sovereign grace are thereby called to participate in the life of a redeemed community of believers who together must find ways of bearing witness to the sovereign rule of God over all things.
Richard Mouw, Forward, x
Van Til’s book is laid out as follows,
The theological meta-narrative of The Calvinistic Concept of Culture is about subsequent Christian thinkers who have, in Van Til’s telling of the tale, best described the profound implications of this biblical plot for the understanding culture: Augustine, Calvin, and Dutch Reformed “neo-Calvinists” of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries…Van Til chooses to focus on two prominent Dutch thinkers—Abraham Kuyper and Klaas Schilder—devoting a chapter to each of them.
Richard Mouw, Forward, xi
The two following questions are central to this book: (1) “What is the definition of the word culture?”, and (2) “What is the relationship of culture to religion?” Van Til defines “culture” with the following definition,
The term “culture” has meant many things to many people. In this book I use the term to designate that activity of man, the image-bearer of God, by which he fulfills the creation mandate to cultivate the earth, to have dominion over it and to subdue it. The term is also applied to the result of such activity, namely, the secondary environment which has been superimposed upon nature by man’s creative effort. Culture, then, is not a peripheral concern, but of the very essence of life. It is an expression of man’s essential being as created in the image of God, and since man is essentially a religious being, it is expressive of his relationship to God, that is, of his religion…My thesis, then, is that Calvinism furnishes us with the only theology of culture that is truly relevant for the world in which we live, because it is the true theology of the Word.
Henry Van Til, Preface, xvii
This very fine definition brings up some salient points: (1) it roots all human culture in the truth that we are creatures made by God, (2) as creatures, we must be in right a relationship with our Creator, and that is only accomplished through faith in Jesus Christ, the Father’s eternal Son, and finally, (3) all human culture is a reflection of our covenantal relationship with God (i.e. our religion) and the blessings of God’s common grace shown to all of his creatures. Van Til would describe religion with the following words,
Religion is the inescapable covenantal relationship between God as Lord and his image-bearer, man. This relation follows from that other basic one of Creator and creature, and rests upon the faithfulness of God to the covenant which he ordained as constituting the religious relationship. This relationship extends to the whole of life; it is all-permeating; it radiates from its center in the heart out to every area on the periphery of man’s existence.
Henry Van Til, The Calvinistic Concept of Culture, 37
The covenantal aspects of our relationship with God are inescapable. All human beings alike are held to the overarching “Covenant of Life” (i.e. required obedience to God’s Law under penalty of death), and Christians are called to live out their faith in this fallen world as representatives of God’s Gospel (cf. 2 Corinthians 5:16-21). They are to be light in the midst of darkness (cf. Matthew 5:14-16). In this respect it would normative for members of Christ’s Church to live in such a way that darkness is driven from culture by the progress of the gospel. Van Til summarizes his central thesis with his oft-quoted phrase, “Culture…is religion externalized.” Just to be factual, though, it is necessary to quote the whole sentence,
But basically the antithesis is just as absolute in culture as it is in the sphere of religion, for culture is simply the service of God in our lives; it is religion externalized.
Henry Van Til, The Calvinistic Concept of Culture, 200
Van Til puts forward the life and ministry of Augustine of Hippo (A.D. 354-430) as an example of one who set out to transform fallen culture with the gospel. He states,
In short, Augustine is not a cultural optimist, who believes in culture as such, to redeem man and society. Neither is he a cultural pessimist in the Tertullian sense of condemning every form of culture simply because of its pagan origin and association. Augustine believes that the achievements of cultural striving must be permeated and transformed by Christian principles so that we develop a truly God-fearing and God-glorifying culture instead of the corrupt, God-defying culture of the world (civitas terrena).
Henry Van Til, The Calvinistic Concept of Culture, 67-68
Just what are the areas of life that might be influenced by the gospel? Or, stated in other words, where should the Christian seek to exercise “sphere-sovereignty”? There are many areas, but let one example, in particular, serve as an application of Van Til’s thesis of cultural transformation; and that is the area of music. Music is a medium that seems to transcend all cultural differences and times. In this “sphere” the sovereignty of God must also be brought to bear. Van Til powerfully contends,
Music is the foremost of the arts in its adaptability to worship. The object of music is God and his creation. The glory of God and the elevation of man are its goal, and the inspiring Psalms are its means. Since it is the goodness of God emanating through the universe that makes men sing, God ought to be the center of man’s thoughts and feelings when he sings. Seriousness, harmony, and joy must characterize our songs to God. And, although Calvin does not reject the use of hymns, he prefers to use the Psalms of David in public worship. Song is the unlimited reservoir of power, since it moves our hearts to call upon the name of God more earnestly. By it we are strong in temptation and in the face of persecution (witness the Huguenots and many martyrs who went to the stake singing), and it renews the soul. By singing the church is builded (sic) and its members united in the holy bond of love. Calvin did not condemn secular music, namely, that which had the creation of God as its object, out of hand. But the secular may not be godless; it must serve to glorify God indirectly through our joy and elevation. Therefore, music that degrades, that corrupts good manners, that flatters the flesh, must be rejected. For music has a secret and incredible power to move the hearts. When evil words are accompanied by music, they penetrate more deeply and the poison enters as wine through a funnel into the vat.
Henry Van Til, The Calvinistic Concept of Culture, 110-111
The Genevan Psalter (1562)
Thus, John Calvin (1509-1564) endeavored to promote godly music in Geneva that would build-up the culture rather than tear it down. He encouraged the singing of Psalms from the Bible in the worship service and around the family table. These were to be sung without instrumentation to metered-tunes that were easily learned. An initial version of the Psalter was published in Strasbourg (1539), and this was followed by numerous editions and perfections to the Psalter published in Geneva. The Psalter was a powerful tool of cultural transformation and cultural domination. Later psalm-singing developed from only singing the melody into four-part harmony (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, and Bass). That perfection became the mainstay of the Dutch Reformed Christians, the Scottish Covenanters, and the English and American Puritans. Van Til explains,
Calvin has been called the father of the Psalter. Before him the French Reformed churches knew no congregational singing. In 1537 Calvin had already proposed the introduction of congregational singing in Geneva, in order to stir up the cold hearts to prayer and to move them to praise. However, the first edition of the Psalter appears in Strasbourg in 1539, where Calvin was in exile. It contained his own metrical version of the Psalms of Strasbourg. Later Calvin eliminated his own poetry and took Marot’s version of the Psalms, while the tunes were either composed or arranged by Bourgeois and published in 1562. This version of the Psalter enjoyed twenty-five editions the year of its publication and a total of 1,400 editions.
Henry Van Til, The Calvinistic Concept of Culture, 111
To further apply this thinking of “sphere-sovereignty” to cultural transformation, Van Til explains Kuypers’ determination to establish parallel institutions that would clearly show the antithesis to those secular institutions. Van Til states,
The regenerated man must live Pro Rege, for the King, in every cultural activity, in every societal relationship, and every communal organization. Marriage, the family, the educational institutions, the state, and society as a whole must be organized along Christian principles…This has been called the organizational antithesis. Kuyper was convinced that there was no other way for the Christian to work and witness successfully in society than through separate organizations. He goes so far as to call this the third instrument, next to church and school, by which Christ maintains his hegemony in society.
Henry Van Til, The Calvinistic Concept of Culture, 131
Today, some Christians would object to Kuyper’s aggressive strategy, and would assert their desire to remain neutral rather than to inflame the opposition by being overly aggressive. Van Til strongly argues that neutrality is impossible; for what do light and darkness have in common? He contends,
Scripture allows no neutrality with respect to the claims of God and of his Christ. For the affirmation of neutrality assumes that the subject is independent of God to the point that he can safely, with impunity, disregard the claims of the Lord. This the Bible will not allow. No man has the right to ignore God; in fact, God is the ever-present, inescapable Presence that no man can ignore. Therefore, the neutrality concept of the world is a form of denial; it says in effect, “God, stay away from my door; I can get along well enough on my own.” This is the philosophy of Esau, a profane person. Neutrality is profanity, it is godliness, it constitutes the secular mind, which tries to make of religion a thing apart from life. But this is blasphemy!
Henry Van Til, The Calvinistic Concept of Culture, 201
The final analysis provided by Van Til is that cultural engagement and transformation is the duty of the Christian. Whereas, there may be subtle refinements to this theology of culture, as proposed by Schilder and others, it is nonetheless the responsibility of Christians everywhere to live as light in this dark world. We are called to retake the ground that has been too easily surrendered to the enemy. We are to do this by living a life of antithesis and cultural engagement.
Thus, it is a privilege to commend The Calvinistic Concept of Culture to a new generation of thoughtful reading Christians who wish to implement the imperatives of the gospel in this fallen world. There will certainly be opposition, both from without and within, but this does not diminish our call to be salt and light. And so, we are to live Pro Rege (for the King) and Coram Deo (before the face of God). May it be so.
Pastor John Robinson Prays for the Pilgrims as they Embark for the New World
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
“Blessed are the people whose God is the LORD!” Psalm 144:15
“He provides food for those who fear him; he remembers his covenant forever.” Psalm 111:5
During the cool weeks of November that lead up to Thanksgiving Day there is great delight in many American homes when the exciting stories of the Pilgrims are read. Who were these people and what motivated them to endure such grievous hardships? The Pilgrims were Separatist Christians originating from the farmland around Scrooby in northern England. Because of their sincere desire to regulate their worship and lives by the Bible alone they experienced persecution and imprisonment during the reign of King James. At the direction of their pastor, Rev. Richard Clifton, they determined to flee England in search of religious freedom. They finally succeeded in 1609 after several failed attempts. The Pilgrims were also accompanied by Rev. John Robinson, their teacher, and Elder William Brewster. The Pilgrims initially settled in Amsterdam, Holland. But found it difficult to remain there and moved to Leyden where they lived for ten years.
When the explorations of Henry Hudson and John Smith became widely known, the Pilgrims determined to attempt the dangerous journey to the New World. They sincerely believed that they could better protect their children from worldly influences, preserve their English ways, and worship God in the manner they saw fit in the wilderness than in Holland. A mixed colony of Saints (Pilgrims) and Strangers (fellow-Englishmen) was formed under the auspices of the “Merchant Adventurers” of London. Terms were negotiated and signed, and the expedition set off in two ships. The Speedwell quickly proved to be less than seaworthy and the Pilgrims were forced sell it, reducing their numbers. They pressed as many passengers as possible into the “between deck” of the Mayflower.
The Mayflower II a faithful replica of the original Mayflower
After a lengthy and arduous voyage across the stormy Atlantic they reached the New World much farther north than they had intended. Instead of the fertile shores of “Northern Virginia” they landed on the rocky barren coast of Cape Cod in New England. Since they were beyond the immediate jurisdiction of the Virginia Colony they determined to draft governing principles to better order their own settlement and solemnly composed the Mayflower Compact. All of the Saints signed, but not all of the Strangers.
In the name of God, Amen. We whose names are underwritten, the loyal subjects of our dread sovereign lord, King James, by the grace of God, of Great Britain, France and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, etc. having undertaken for the glory of God, and advancement of the Christian faith, and honor of our king and country, a voyage to plant the first colony in the northern parts of Virginia, do by these presents solemnly and mutually in the presence of God, and of one another, covenant and combine ourselves into a civil body politic, for our better ordering and preservation, and the furtherance of the ends aforesaid and by virtue hereof to enact, constitute, and frame, such just and equal laws, ordinances, acts, constitutions, and offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meet and convenient for the general use of the Colony, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In witness whereof we have here underscribed our names at Cape Cod, 11th of November, in the year of the reign of our sovereign lord, King James of England, France and Ireland the eighteenth, and of Scotland the fifty-fourth. A.D. 1620
William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 1651
Arriving at Plymouth Rock
Once they had landed, they immediately set off to replenish their food and water supplies. The Lord providentially led them to mounds of corn buried by local Indians; which they left payment for. They also sailed further west and found Plymouth Bay where they landed on December 21, 1620 at Plymouth Rock. Here they steadfastly carved their colony out of a hostile wilderness by erecting a squat common house for defense atop the nearest hill and a short row of small rustic cabins in which several families lived. This was not a comfortable English hamlet, but the Pilgrims insisted that, “It is not with us as with other men whom small things can discourage, or small discontentments cause (us) to wish (ourselves) at home again.” These people were made of sterner stuff! The first winter was exceedingly difficult for the Pilgrims. Out of 102 settlers roughly one half died from sickness before those disease-ridden months were completely over. The dead were quietly buried at night in unmarked graves so that the local Indians could not see how small their company had actually become.
Having survived the winter, the following March they were visited by the Indian, Samoset. When he entered their tiny village he cried out in English “Welcome Englishmen! Do you have any beer?” The settlers were astonished to be greeted by an English-speaking Indian! Later, Samoset told them about his friend Squanto who spoke even better English. Squanto was clearly God’s gift to the Pilgrims. Governor William Bradford later referred to him as, “a special instrument sent of God for their good, beyond their expectation.” Squanto showed them how to raise corn, catch fish in the sea, and tread-out freshwater eels in the mudflats. Most importantly, he showed them how to survive the rigors of the American wilderness. With Squanto’s help the Pilgrims were able to negotiate a lasting peace with Massasoit, the local Indian chief, which lasted for over fifty years. The first Thanksgiving Day feast took place in November, 1621 after the Pilgrims brought in a substantial harvest. The Wampanoag tribe who had helped them so kindly was also welcomed to their burgeoning table. Edward Winslow, the assistant to Governor William Bradford, wrote about that special day in his brief history of Plymouth Colony, Mourt’s Relation. He described the scene this way,
Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, so that we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little outside help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, amongst other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their great king Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which they brought to the plantation and bestowed on our governor, and upon the captain and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.
Edward Winslow, Mourt’s Relation, 72
Elder Brewster leading the Pilgrims in prayer at the 1st Thanksgiving Feast
Indeed, there was so much to thank God for! The Pilgrims sought a land where they could preserve their English culture and live as freemen; where they could raise their children free from worldly influences; and where they could worship God without hinderance in the manner they saw fit. Through great hardship they came to experience the reality of the Lord’s abundant promises: “He provides food for those who fear him; he remembers his covenant forever.” Psalm 111:5
Resources for Further Study:
Beale, David. The Mayflower Pilgrims: Roots of Puritan, Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Baptist Heritage. Greenville, SC: Ambassador-Emerald International, 2000.
Bradford, William. Of Plymouth Plantation (1620-1647). Samuel Eliot Morison, ed. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006.
Brown, John. The Pilgrim Fathers of New England and their Puritan Successors. London, England: The Religious Tract Society, 1895.
Foster, Marshall, and Swanson, Mary-Elaine. The American Covenant: The Untold Story. Revised Edition. Santa Barbara, CA: Co-published by The Foundation for Christian Self-Government (1981) and the Mayflower Institute (1983).
Fiore, Jordan D., ed. Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. Reprint, Plymouth, MA: Plymouth Rock Foundation, 1985.
Gragg, Rod. The Pilgrim Chronicles: An Eyewitness History of the Pilgrims and the Founding of Plymouth Colony. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2014.
Jehle, Dr. Paul. Plymouth in the Words of Her Founders. San Antonio, TX: Vision Forum, 2002.
Willison, George F. Saints and Strangers. New York, NY: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1945.
Books to Read Out Loud to Children:
Bulla, Clyde Robert. Squanto: Friend of the Pilgrims. New York, NY: Scholastic, Inc. 1954.
Carpenter, Edmund J. The Mayflower Pilgrims. Arlington Heights, IL: Christian Liberty Press, n.d.
Daugherty, James. The Landing of the Pilgrims. New York, NY: Random House, Landmark Books, 1950.
Foster, Marshall, and Swanson, Mary-Elaine. The American Covenant: The Untold Story. Revised Edition. Santa Barbara, CA: Co-published by The Foundation for Christian Self-Government (1981) and The Mayflower Institute (1983).
Pumphrey, Margaret B. Stories of the Pilgrims. New York, NY: Rand McNally & Company, 1912; Reprint, Corvallis, OR: Creation’s Child, 1986.
Otis, James. Mary of Plymouth. Reprint, Bulverde, TX: Mantle Ministries, 1999.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2020 – All Rights Reserved
“As for you, you meant evil against me, but God meant it for good, to bring it about that many people should be kept alive, as they are today.” Genesis 50:20
Squanto was an American Indian of the Patuxant tribe who significantly helped the Pilgrims during the first two years of their settlement in New England. Without the timely help of Squanto (or Tisquantum), it is doubtful whether the frail Pilgrim settlement at Plymouth would have survived the second winter. The deep personal friendship between Squanto and the Pilgrims is noteworthy, in that from the first day that he met them he never left them. How was it possible that an English-speaking, God-fearing, lonely-hearted Indian would emerge out of the dense forests of New England to assist the starving Pilgrims? Here are the fascinating details of Squanto’s story.
Tisquantum
Fifteen years prior to the arrival of the Pilgrims (AD 1605), Squanto, along with four other Indians, was kidnapped by an English mariner, Captain George Weymouth, and taken to England to impress his financial backers. He was given to Sir Fernando Gorges who later became a major investor in the Plymouth Company. While living with Sir Fernando Gorges, Squanto was favorably exposed to English ways, the English language, and the Christian gospel. Nine years later, in 1614, he returned to New England as part of an exploratory expedition led by Captain John Smith who used Squanto as an interpreter. When Smith departed Squanto was assigned to Captain Thomas Hunt. Dominated by avarice and greed, Hunt deceitfully lured many Indians aboard his ship and Squanto was kidnapped once again! All of these unfortunate captives were sold at the slave market in Malaga, Spain. But in God’s good providence, Squanto was purchased by some benevolent monks who eventually released him so that he could return home to the New World. He determined to make his way to England, which was familiar to him, and after successfully doing so he worked for several more years as a domestic servant for a wealthy merchant and ship-builder, Master John Slaney. Squanto made one journey to Newfoundland, but was not able to reach his village in Patuxant (the exact circumstances of this journey are a bit unclear). In time, though, he was able to secure another passage to America with a friendly sea captain, Thomas Dermer, who set him off in New England just six months (Spring, 1620) before the Mayflower dropped anchor in Plymouth Bay (December 19, 1620).
Samuel de Champlain’s Map of Plymouth Harbor
Once Squanto returned to his own land, he found to his dismay that all of his tribe had been killed by a mysterious and unstoppable plague. No one from his entire village remained alive, so that Squanto became known amongst the other Indian tribes as “the last Patuxant.” Lonely and forlorn, he sought refuge amongst the Wampanoags, a nearby Indian tribe led by Chief Massasoit. He also became friendly with another Indian who served as a guide to the English by the name of Samoset. When the Pilgrims finally landed after a very rough sea voyage in December 1620, they unwittingly established their colony near, or perhaps on, the same site as Squanto’s Indian village. This unknown fact protected the Pilgrims from hostile and superstitious Indians who would not come near the former village of the unfortunate Patuxant tribe. The pioneering Pilgrims quickly erected a sturdy squat common house for defense on the top of the nearest hill, and a short row of small rustic cabins in which several crowded families lived. This was not a comfortable country hamlet, but the Pilgrims insisted that, “It is not with us as with other men whom small things can discourage, or small discontentments cause (us) to wish (ourselves) at home again.” These people were made of sterner stuff!
A replica of the Plymouth Plantation
The first winter was an exceedingly difficult time for the Pilgrims. Out of the 102 initial settlers, roughly one half died from sickness before those disease-ridden months were completely over. The dead were buried at night in unmarked graves so that any Indians lurking in the forests would not see how small their company had actually become. If it were not for the enduring presence of the Mayflower with its extra supplies and the sacrificial efforts of several of the more stout Pilgrims in caring for the sick, the number of dead would surely have been greater. But the winter finally gave way to the spring and having survived their snowy ordeal, the Pilgrims launched into the planting season with hopeful optimism. The barren rocky soil in Plymouth, however, proved to be very different from the productive fields of England and the fertile gardens of Holland. Beyond that, much of the seed for planting had been consumed during the desperate days of winter. Some additional “means” would have to be found to bring about a successful crop. The “means” that God provided was not a newly arrived ship crammed with fresh supplies, but a lonely Indian brave who longed to find a new home, a new family, and a new purpose for his life.
Squanto teaching the Pilgrims how to plant beans and maize
Squanto made his appearance in the rough-hewn village of Plymouth at the encouragement of his friend Samoset. It was said of Squanto that he knew the King’s English and the streets of London far better than his Pilgrim friends. He also knew all of the Indian ways that would be such a great help to the Pilgrims in their desperate hour. At just the right time God brought this unexpected deliverer upon the scene. Immediately, Squanto started educating the Pilgrims about how to fish, fertilize and plant corn, catch freshwater eels with their bare hands, and store food Indian-style. His most important role was in serving as an interpreter for the English in negotiating a pact of non-aggression and mutual defense with Chief Massasoit of the Wampanoags. Without the timely provision of Squanto’s assistance it is doubtful that such a permanent peace could have been negotiated. This peace treaty remained in effect for over fifty years. He was called by the Indians “the tongue of the Englishmen.” But, Governor William Bradford affectionately referred to him as, “a special instrument sent of God for their good, beyond their expectation.” Squanto had in God’s providence not only discovered a new home for himself built upon the ruins of his old village, but he had also adopted the Pilgrims as a replacement for his deceased Indian family.
It would be a complete mischaracterization to portray Squanto as one who never had any further troubles in his brief life. He struggled with a deep-seated jealousy when Hobomok, an official representative of Chief Massasoit, came to live in Plymouth. Evidently, Squanto enjoyed having a special relationship with the Pilgrims and was reluctant to share this unique privilege with others. Even the level-headed Massasoit grew irritated and angry with Squanto’s intrigues at one point and demanded his death. Yet, Governor Bradford’s urgent intercession for him prevented this rash deed from being carried out. Squanto also sought to gain an unhealthy advantage over his fellow Indians by asserting that the Pilgrims kept the “dreaded plague” under a loose plank in the floor of the common house. It was intimated that he could command them to cast it upon those whom he disliked. Thus he gained an elevated position amongst the local Indians for a short time, but in the end all of these ill-conceived schemes back-fired upon him and he was discovered as a fraud.
Squanto helped the Pilgrims establish a pact of non-aggression with Chief Massasoit
It must be remembered that over-all Squanto was well-liked within the colony at Plymouth and proved to be a trusted and faithful friend to the Pilgrims throughout his entire life. Moreover, Squanto generously helped the Pilgrims in a sacrificial manner when they were most needy and destitute. Here was a man who truly laid down his life on behalf of his friends (John 15:13). What the wicked English sea captain meant for evil, God used for good, so that Squanto actually became a deliverer to the Pilgrims in their time of trouble (cf. Genesis 50:20). For without the assistance of Squanto, there very likely would have been no day of thanksgiving in November 1621 because there would have been too little food to warrant having a harvest celebration. Though, in God’s good providence there was an abundance of food and the celebration that became known as Thanksgiving took place. In the end, Squanto lived out the remainder of his life with the Pilgrims in Governor Bradford’s own home in the very center of Plymouth. He was a welcome member of the extended Bradford family all his days. His demise came rather unexpectedly while Squanto and others were on a necessary food-buying mission to the Indian tribes of Cape Cod during the winter of 1622. He endured a short bout with “Indian fever” and finally gave way to serious illness following a few days of suffering. After bequeathing his few possessions as “remembrances of love” to various Pilgrims, his final words were spoken to Governor Bradford. He simply requested “ye Governor to pray for him, that he might goe to ye Englishman’s God in heaven.” Let us remember the true and faithful promise, “Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord…that they may rest from their labors, for their deeds follow them.” (Revelation 14:13).
Here are four of my favorite books on the Pilgrims
Resources for Further Study:
Beale, David. The Mayflower Pilgrims: Roots of Puritan, Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Baptist Heritage. Greenville, SC: Ambassador-Emerald International, 2000.
Bradford, William. Of Plymouth Plantation. Reprint, San Antonio, TX: co-published by Vision Forum & Mantle Ministries, 1988.
Bradford, William. Of Plymouth Plantation (1620-1647). Samuel Eliot Morison, ed. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006.
Brown, John. The Pilgrim Fathers of New England and their Puritan Successors. London, England: The Religious Tract Society, 1895.
Gragg, Rod. The Pilgrim Chronicles: An Eyewitness History of the Pilgrims and the Founding of Plymouth Colony. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2014.
Jehle, Paul. Plymouth in the Words of Her Founders. San Antonio, Texas, Vision Forum Ministries, 2002.
Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Oxford History of the American People. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1965.
Schmidt, Gary D. William Bradford: Plymouth’s Faithful Pilgrim. Grand Rapids, MI: William. B. Eerdmans, 1999.
Willison, George F. Saints and Strangers. New York, NY: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1945.
Winslow, Edward. Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. Jordan D. Fiore ed. Reprint, Plymouth, MA: Plymouth Rock Foundation, 1985.
Books to Read Out Loud to Children:
Bulla, Clyde Robert. Squanto: Friend of the Pilgrims. New York, NY: Scholastic, Inc. 1954.
Carpenter, Edmund J. The Mayflower Pilgrims. Arlington Heights, IL: Christian Liberty Press, n.d.
Daugherty, James. The Landing of the Pilgrims. New York, NY: Random House, Landmark Books, 1950.
Foster, Marshall, and Mary-Elaine Swanson. The American Covenant: The Untold Story. Revised edition. Santa Barbara, CA: co-published by The Foundation for Christian Self-Government in 1981, and by The Mayflower Institute in 1983.
Pumphrey, Margaret B. Stories of the Pilgrims. New York, NY: Rand McNally & Company, 1912. Reprint, Corvallis, OR: Creation’s Child, 1986.
Otis, James. Mary of Plymouth. Reprint, Bulverde, TX: Mantle Ministries, 1999.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2020 – All Rights Reserved
“And we know that for those who love God all things work together for good, for those who are called according to his purpose.” Romans 8:28
The rigors of the first winter for the Mayflower Pilgrims are well-known to most students of American history (1620-1621). Nearly half of the original 102 settlers died during that intense season of sickness, suffering, and sadness. Yet, God providentially intervened in several remarkable ways throughout the following spring and summer by providing help in the midst of their infirmities. In particular, the Lord provided an English-speaking, God-fearing, lonely-hearted Indian by the name of Tisquantum. It was said of Squanto that he knew the King’s English and the streets of London far better than his Pilgrim friends. He also knew all of the Indian ways that would be such a great help to the Pilgrims in their desperate hour. At just the right time God brought this unexpected deliverer upon the scene. Immediately, Squanto started educating the Pilgrims on how to catch fish out in Plymouth Bay, and how to capture freshwater eels in the stream with their bare hands. He also taught them how to fertilize and plant corn, and how to safely store the harvested corn Indian-style. Arguably, his most important role was in serving as an interpreter for the English in negotiating a pact of non-aggression and mutual defense with Chief Massasoit of the Wampanoags. Without the timely provision of Squanto’s assistance it is doubtful that such a permanent peace could have been negotiated. This peace treaty remained in effect for over fifty years. He was warily called by the Indians “the tongue of the Englishmen.” But, Governor William Bradford affectionately referred to him as, “a special instrument sent of God for their good, beyond their expectation.” In God’s unforeseen providence Squanto not only discovered a new home for himself built near his old village, but he was lovingly adopted by the Pilgrims and became a respected member of their community.
It was out of this surprising set of circumstances that the Pilgrim’s gathered in the fall of 1621 to hold a feast of thanksgiving to God. Their feast was most likely based upon the Old Testament practice of the Israelites who were instructed by God to hold a feast of thanksgiving at the end of the harvest season. In ancient days this festival was known as the “Feast of Booths” because its celebrants were to live outdoors in primitive huts for seven days. The Bible records the following instructions,
On the fifteenth day of the seventh month, when you have gathered in the produce of the land, you shall celebrate the feast of the LORD seven days. On the first day shall be a solemn rest, and on the eighth day shall be a solemn rest. And you shall take on the first day the fruit of splendid trees, branches of palm trees and boughs of leafy trees and willows of the brook, and you shall rejoice before the LORD your God seven days. You shall celebrate it as a feast to the LORD for seven days in the year. It is a statute forever throughout your generations; you shall celebrate it in the seventh month. You shall dwell in booths for seven days. All native Israelites shall dwell in booths, that your generations may know that I made the people of Israel dwell in booths when I brought them out of the land of Egypt: I am the LORD your God.
Leviticus 23:39-43; English Standard Version
It should be noted that the Pilgrims did not hold this feast of thanksgiving to satisfy the provisions of the Old Testament ceremonial law—which they believed had been completely fulfilled through the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ—but to obey the biblical principle of being thankful for all that God had provided. Thus, they prepared a feast of thanksgiving out of gratitude for God’s abundant blessings. The evangelization of the Indians was also on their minds, therefore they invited Massasoit and his braves to attend. It was quite a surprise when he showed up with ninety hungry warriors!
Here are two eyewitness accounts of the original thanksgiving feast. The first testimony is from the Pilgrim author Edward Winslow (1595-1655) who wrote this account during the second winter and published it in his book, Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrim’s at Plymouth (1622). Winslow remarked,
Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, so that we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little outside help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, amongst other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their great king Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which they brought to the plantation and bestowed on our governor, and upon the captain and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want, that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.
Edward Winslow, Mourt’s Relation, 72
Curious historians have often wondered, “What was on the menu for that first thanksgiving feast?” Evidently no one ever wrote down the exact menu. But the answer is not too difficult to reconstruct given an awareness of English culinary practices and the testimony of the second eyewitness, Gov. William Bradford (1590-1657). He wrote of this time period in his informative book, Of Plymouth Plantation (1647).
They began now to gather in the small harvest they had, and to prepare their houses for the winter, being well recovered in health and strength, and plentifully provisioned: for while some had been thus employed in affairs away from home, others were occupied in fishing for cod, bass, and other fish, of which they caught a good quantity, every family having their portion. All the summer there was no want. And now, as winter approached, wild fowl began to arrive, of which there were plenty when they came here first, though afterwards they became more scarce. As well as wild fowl, they got abundance of wild turkeys, besides venison, etc. Each person had about a peck of meal a week, or now, since harvest, Indian corn in that proportion; and afterwards many wrote at length about their plenty to their friends in England,—not feigned but true reports.
William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 89
Therefore, an educated guess of what was on the menu of that first thanksgiving feast would include the following items:
From the two quotes we learn that the feast included cod, sea bass, wildfowl (such as ducks, geese, turkeys and swans), corn meal (and probably wheat), and five deer brought by the Indians. Meat, fish, and bread were the most important elements of the English diet at this time, although fruits and “herbs” were also eaten. The term “vegetables” was not in use at this time; edible plants were known as sallet herbs, potherbs or roots. It is quite possible that shellfish were not a feature at the feast, for although they were plentiful and formed a large part of the Pilgrim’s diet in the early years, they were looked on as poverty fare and hence inappropriate for a feast. The meats were roasted or boiled in traditional English fashion, and the fish boiled or perhaps grilled in the Indian manner. Breads were skillet breads cooked by the fire or perhaps risen breads baked in a clay or cloam oven. Fruit tarts were produced in the same way. The herbs were either boiled along with the meats as “sauce,” or used in “sallets.” A sallet was a vegetable dish either cooked or raw, and either “simple” or “compound” (that is, made from one ingredient or several). The popularity of sallet or vegetable dishes was not great at this time. Therefore, they are not always mentioned although they were served fairly frequently…beverages included beer, Aqua Vitae (or “strong waters”) and water.
Carolyn Travers, The Thanksgiving Primer, 17
Overall, we can deduce from the evidence that the Pilgrims held a feast of great abundance. Chief Massasoit and his men were greeted by an overflowing table as they sat down to eat. One wonders if they had ever seen so much food at any one setting before! Certainly, this feast was a fitting celebration of God’s providential care. Moreover, it was an amazing testament to the Pilgrim’s indefatigable efforts and their sacrificial labors in carving out a new home in the rough and rocky wilderness of New England.
With God’s help they survived the severities of the second winter (1621-1622), and prospered so much that another thanksgiving feast was held after the harvest in the fall of 1622. In time, the feast of thanksgiving became an annual event that was much anticipated by all of the inhabitants of Plymouth— both young and old alike. It was filled with bountiful platters of food, multiple contests of skill, and grateful times of worship. Although there would be many challenging circumstances yet to come in the life of Plymouth’s Pilgrims—the preservation of their fragile colony through cold, deceit, famine, financial worry, political intrigue, religious persecution, schism, sickness, storm, sudden fire, and war all demonstrated the magnanimous favor of God in the midst of their hardships. The Pilgrims themselves steadfastly believed that God had preserved and protected them, and that he was worthy of all praise and thanksgiving for the mercies of his providential care. On this providential theme Gov. William Bradford wrote the following comments about the year 1630. He noted,
Thus out of small beginnings greater things have been produced by His hand that made all things out of nothing, and gives being to all things that are; and, as one small candle may light a thousand, so the light here kindled has shone unto many, yea in some sort to our whole nation; let the glorious name of Jehovah have all the praise.
William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 226
Indeed, the Lord watched over the Pilgrims and providentially supplied their needs. This promise from the Bible certainly rang true for the Pilgrims of Plymouth…
“Praise the LORD! Blessed is the man who fears the LORD, who greatly delights in his commandments! His offspring will be mighty in the land; the generation of the upright will be blessed.” Psalm 112:1-2
The Pilgrims on their way to worship God
Resources for Further Study:
Bartlett, Robert M. The Faith of the Pilgrims: An American Heritage. New York, NY: United Church Press, 1978.
Beale, David. The Mayflower Pilgrims: Roots of Puritan, Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Baptist Heritage. Greenville, SC: Ambassador-Emerald International, 2000.
Bradford, William. Of Plymouth Plantation (1620-1647). Samuel Eliot Morison, ed. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006.
Brown, John. The Pilgrim Fathers of New England and their Puritan Successors. London, England: The Religious Tract Society, 1895.
Gragg, Rod. The Pilgrim Chronicles: An Eyewitness History of the Pilgrims and the Founding of Plymouth Colony. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2014.
Jehle, Dr. Paul. Plymouth in the Words of Her Founders. San Antonio, TX: Vision Forum, 2002.
Marshall, Peter, and David Manuel. The Light and the Glory: Did God have a plan for America? Grand Rapids, MI: Fleming H. Revell, 1977.
Ryken, Leland. Wordly Saints: The Puritans As They Really Were. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1986.
Schmidt, Gary D. William Bradford: Plymouth’s Faithful Pilgrim. Grand Rapids, MI: William. B. Eerdmans, 1999.
Willison, George F. Saints and Strangers. New York, NY: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1945.
Winslow, Edward. Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. Jordan D. Fiore ed. Reprint, Plymouth, MA: Plymouth Rock Foundation, 1985.
Books to Read Out Loud to Children:
Bulla, Clyde Robert. Squanto: Friend of the Pilgrims. New York, NY: Scholastic, Inc. 1954.
Carpenter, Edmund J. The Mayflower Pilgrims. Arlington Heights, IL: Christian Liberty Press, n.d.
Daugherty, James. The Landing of the Pilgrims. New York, NY: Random House, Landmark Books, 1950.
Foster, Marshall, and Mary-Elaine Swanson. The American Covenant: The Untold Story. Revised edition. Santa Barbara, CA: co-published by The Foundation for Christian Self-Government in 1981 and by The Mayflower Institute in 1983.
Pumphrey, Margaret B. Stories of the Pilgrims. New York, NY: Rand McNally & Company, 1912. Reprint, Corvallis, OR: Creation’s Child, 1986.
Otis, James. Mary of Plymouth. Reprint, Bulverde, TX: Mantle Ministries, 1999.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2020 – All Rights Reserved
What difference did the Protestant Reformation (1517-1650) make upon the religious practices of the world? Consider this thoughtful statement by Dr. Andrew Atherstone, Tutor in History and Doctrine, Wycliffe Hall, Oxford:
The sixteenth-century reformation was one of he most dramatic and significant series of events in the history of Christianity. It sent shock waves through the western world and changed the face of Europe forever. Its impact upon the church has sometimes been likened to a second Day of Pentecost, a crucial turning point and a moment of crisis. To some, this cataclysmic rupture in the fabric of catholic Christendom was interpreted as the labour pains of Christianity reborn. As one historian has put it, “No other movement or religious protest or reform since antiquity has been so widespread or lasting in its effects, so deep and searching in its criticism of received wisdom, so destructive in what it abolished or so fertile in what it created.”
Andrew Atherstone, The Reformation: Faith and Flames, 6
Atherstone’s quote tells us that the events of the Protestant Reformation were second only to the impact that the Day of Pentecost had upon the world. What specifically happened in the Reformation? By God’s grace, the Reformers clearly rediscovered the true Gospel and set about stripping away the “traditions of men” that clung like crusty barnacles to the hull of the true Church. In addition, new branches of Christendom were energized and established and the Gospel spread all over the world. Numerous Christian books and pamphlets were produced and widely distributed around the globe. Strenuous and sacrificial missionary endeavors took place so that people who lived in spiritual darkness were brought into the light. And finally, through the preaching and teaching of ministers, missionaries, and every day Christians the Gospel continued in its path of spiritual transformation and renewal.
Jesus instructed his disciples to “Go therefore and make disciples…baptizing them…[and] teaching them” (Matthew 28:18-20). That commission was pushed forward with new energy and zeal by the Reformers so that the Gospel spread into every dark corner of the world. Thus, we have much to be thankful for when we consider the work of the Protestant Reformers. The Reformation proved to be a decisive turning point in the history of the world and evangelical Christians everywhere should thank God for this great outpouring of revival.
My interest in the Protestant Reformation is longstanding: I see it as significant time when the “traditions of men” were stripped away, the Bible was rediscovered and translated into the lingua franca, and the Gospel was widely preached throughout Europe. Many individuals came to faith in Jesus Christ, and indeed many nations were profoundly affected. These two quotations sum-up much of what I have come to believe about the importance of the Reformation. Both are pointed and powerful. Enjoy!
Dr. Roland Bainton, Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Yale University: “The Reformation was above all else a revival of religion. So much is this the case that some have looked upon it as the last great flowering of the piety of the Middle Ages.” (Roland Bainton, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century, 3)
Dr. Timothy George, Dean of Beeson Divinity School, Samford University: “The abiding validity of Reformation theology is that, despite the many varied emphases it contains within itself, it challenges the church to listen reverently and obediently to what God has once and for all said (Deus dixit) and once and for all done in Jesus Christ. How the church will respond to this challenge is not a matter of academic speculation or ecclesiastical gamesmanship. It is a question of life or death. It is the decision of whether the church will serve the true and living God of Jesus Christ, the God of the Old and the New Testaments, or else succumb to the worship of Baal.” (Timothy George, Theology of the Reformers, 310)
The beautiful City of Prague in the Czech Republic
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
“Father, forgive them; for they do not know what they do” (cf. Luke 23:34). Our Lord Jesus Christ spoke these passionate words of forgiveness for the sake of the soldiers who gambled for his possessions at the foot of the Cross. Jesus prayed for those who crucified him and thereby showed future generations of his followers that Christianity was not only a faith of the persecuted, but it was also a faith of those who forgive. Over the centuries there have been many disciples of Jesus who have given up their lives for the cause of Christ. But, perhaps none have so closely paralleled the awful circumstances of our Lord as that of the fiery Bohemian reformer—Jan Hus (1373-1415). Like Jesus, Hus was blatantly betrayed, unjustly accused, and mercilessly killed. Of the many known statements uttered by Jan Hus approaching his death, these best exemplify the forgiving spirit of Christ, “Lord God, pardon my enemies. Thou knowest that I have been falsely accused, and unfairly sentenced. I pray Thee, Thine unspeakable mercy, not to lay it to their charge.”
Jan Hus
In 1373 Jan Hus was born to a poor peasant family in southern Bohemia from the village of Husinec (from which he received his name “Hus”). His father and mother struggled financially to send their son to the best local schools and eventually, at age thirteen, they sent him away from home to the Elementary School at Prachatice. Although he greatly missed his family he diligently applied himself to his studies and performed well in his examinations. Following his graduation in 1390 Hus enrolled at the University of Prague. In that rarified academic environment he excelled in every subject, distinguishing himself in classical languages, Greek philosophy, and the early Church Fathers. In 1394 he was awarded a Bachelor of Arts degree and after a few additional years of study he received a Master of Arts degree (1396). Because of his fine academic record he immediately began teaching philosophy at the University in the faculty of arts. But, Hus also had strong religious interests and became an ordained Roman Catholic priest in 1400. After several years of teaching Hus was honored in 1401 by being appointed Dean of the philosophy faculty and in 1402 he became the Rector of the University. Jan Hus had risen far from his lowly beginnings to great heights in his chosen field at the University of Prague—human philosophy. He had every reason to be proud of his accomplishments, but God would soon begin to humble him so that he would become an accomplished preacher of the Word of God.
Unknown to Jan Hus there was a significant event which took place when he was nine years old (in 1382) that would greatly shape his emerging world—the marriage between Princess Ann of Bohemia and King Richard II of England (1367-1400). Traveling with the Princess’s entourage from Bohemia was Professor Faulfash from the University of Prague. While in England the learned professor purchased numerous copies of John Wycliffe’s books and after many years returned with them to Bohemia in 1401. He was greatly stirred by Wycliffe’s writings, agreeing with many of their key tenants. Over time Professor Faulfash began teaching about the abuses and ignorance of the priests in his lectures at the University. He boldly challenged the authority of the priests to represent God at the Mass (i.e. Sacerdotalism), and the power of the priests to give forgiveness to the people (i.e. the absolution of sins). The Czech Roman Catholic priests angrily reacted to these charges by accusing Professor Faulfash of heresy and eventually they appointed a bright young Czech priest and University professor to study his doctrines in order to find their weaknesses—this man was Jan Hus.
John Wycliffe
Throughout 1401 to 1403 Jan Hus became thoroughly acquainted with Wycliffe’s books during his study of the teachings of Professor Faulfash. As a result, he was forced to turn to the Bible to dispute this heretical propaganda. But, God did not allow Jan Hus to oppose these new found “doctrines of grace,” but instead softened his heart to the gospel bringing Hus to the point of conversion. Aware of his own sin for the very first time, Hus repented and placed his faith in Jesus Christ and his atoning work on the cross. The Bible took on new importance in his life and he adopted many of the views of John Wycliffe and Professor Faulfash as his own. In his enthusiasm Hus began to preach in various churches about his new-found faith and a popular following arose amongst the common people who in turn thronged to his sermons.
Bethlehem Chapel, Prague
Following the completion of his Bachelor of Divinity degree in 1402 Hus was providentially appointed Rector and Preacher at Bethlehem Chapel in Prague. In his new role as an established preacher Hus began to systematically expound the Word of God teaching the people of Bohemia the great doctrines of the Bible. His fervent sermons became a lightening rod that attracted both enthusiastic approval from the masses and vehement criticism from the offended clergy. He preached with an urgency that contended for the soul of each one of his listeners. As a result, he became the “point man” of the incipient Bohemian reform movement. Specifically, Hus achieved notoriety for preaching the Bible in the common language of the people and for his popular writings against corrupt Church authorities. He stressed the Scriptures over Church canonical law and thus elevated the practice of expounding the Word of God. As a result of his teaching, many other reformers boldly rose up throughout Bohemia.
Jan Hus and the fledgling Bohemian reform movement enjoyed five years of nurture under the benevolent protection of Bohemian Archbishop Zbynek. At this time the clerical leaders of the Roman Catholic Church were preoccupied by a controversial split between three rival Popes (one in Rome, a second in Pisa, and a third in Avignon, France). When Pope Alexander V was finally able to depose all “anti-Popes” at the Council of Pisa in 1409 a renewed interest in cleansing all heresies within Roman Catholicism arose. Unfortunately for Jan Hus, this zeal to purge the Church of errant teachings focused on the doctrines of Wycliffe and anyone who taught them. Archbishop Zbynek had previously supported the reform movement in Bohemia; however when the Pope prohibited any “Wycliffite” preaching in chapels to take place the Archbishop changed his loyalty and sought to remove Hus. The final assault against Hus came in the form of a charge of heresy by the Archbishop. Ultimately, Hus did not bow to his authority and in 1410 was excommunicated. The people of Prague arose in anger supporting Jan Hus and his right to preach the Word of God. Eventually, the entire city was placed under a Papal interdict, forbidding any religious services and burial of the dead in consecrated ground. In 1412 Jan Hus fled Prague in order to lift the Papal interdict and to spare the people any further persecution.
Although Jan Hus was removed from his pulpit, he was not silenced. For two years Hus lived in exile in Southern Bohemia where he wrote several powerful treatises: On the Church, On Simony, Expositions of the Faith—on the Decalogue and the Lord’s Prayer. Here is a brief quotation on the subject of heresy and the supremacy of the Bible from Jan Hus’ work On Simony (1413). He cogently argues,
…I affirm that heresy is a stubborn adherence to an error contrary to the Holy Scriptures. I say “adherence to an error,” for without that one could not be a heretic. And since there can be no adherence without consent, no man can hold a heresy without consenting to the error. Hence heresy, equally with every mortal sin, has its nest and basis in the heart, that is, in the hearty will. As the Savior said, it is out of the heart that evil thoughts, murders, adulteries, fornications, robbery, false witness, and blasphemy proceed. Thus, no man, not even God, can make anyone a heretic without his consent. Secondly, you perceive that heresy can exist in none but a rational spirit which willfully opposes the truth of the Holy Scriptures. For as every mortal sin is found only in a rational spirit, and every heresy is a mortal sin, hence all heresy exists only in a rational spirit. Furthermore, it is stated that heresy implies a stubborn adherence [to the error], such as when a man refuses, temporarily or permanently, to give up. For when a man, holding an error as truth, recognizes that what he has held for truth is an error, and immediately acknowledges it to be such, he is not a heretic…Why? Because they did not perish in the error, but were willing to forsake it and gladly to accept the truth. Accordingly, every faithful Christian should be so minded as not to hold anything contrary to the Holy Scriptures.
Hus, “On Simony,” in Advocates of Reform, 196-197
With closely reasoned treatises like this, Hus continued to promote the authority of the Bible and to encourage the reading of Wycliffe’s works. In addition, he preached throughout Bohemia always encouraging the efforts of reform into whatever pulpit he was welcomed.
The long-standing rift between the rival Catholic Popes, however, was not completely solved by the Council of Pisa (1409) and therefore in 1414 Emperor Sigismund called for the meeting of the Council of Constance. Since the followers of Wycliffe, such as Jan Hus and several others, were perceived to be a growing problem within Roman Catholicism this issue was also made an agenda of the council. Hus was summoned by the Emperor Sigismund to defend his views and was given a “certificate of safe-passage” to and from the council. After much hesitation, and at the encouragement of the Bohemian King Wenceslas, Hus began his long journey on foot to Constance on October 11, 1414. All throughout his travels in Germany Hus was hailed by the local populace and reform-minded princes as a great preacher and spiritual reformer. He arrived in Constance on November 3, 1414 and was left alone by the papal authorities for one month. However, once he was put at ease, he was treacherously lured into the papal residence one day where he was quickly arrested and imprisoned inside a Dominican monastery.
The accusers of Hus filed thirty-nine charges against him based on his most popular work, On the Church. Here is a revealing selection from On the Church that demonstrates the kind of stinging rebuke that aroused the ire of the Roman Catholic clergy. Hus boldly declares,
It is one thing to be of the church, another thing to be in the church. Clearly it does not follow that all living persons who are in the church are of the church. On the contrary, we know that tares grow among the wheat, the raven eats from the same threshing floor as the dove, and the chaff is harvested along with the grain. Some are in the church in name and in reality—such as predestined Catholics obedient to Christ. Some are neither in name nor in reality in the church—such as reprobate pagans. Others are in the church in name only—such as, for example, reprobate hypocrites. Still others are in the church in reality and, although they appear to be in name outside it, are predestined Christians—such as those who are seen to be condemned by the satraps of the Antichrist before the church.
Hus, “On the Church,” Chapter 3, in A Concise History of Christian Thought, 138
Finally on June 5-6 and 8, 1415 the council heard charges against him. Hus was not allowed to be present to defend himself, nevertheless, the council found him to be a heretic. When Hus finally did appear before the council on July 6th, he refused to recant of the charges against him since they did not truly represent his teachings. While on the judgment seat Hus looked to Emperor Sigismund, who had the power to free him instantly, to see if he would abide by the promise of “safe-passage” that he had given to Hus. But, the Emperor had been deceived into thinking that he was not obliged to keep faith with a “heretic.” Emperor Sigismund quietly spoke the death sentence, “Let him be accursed of God and man eternally.” Whereupon Hus replied, “I am willing to suffer for the truth in the name of Jesus Christ.” A tall paper cap was placed upon his head with figures of the devil upon it and the inscription “A RINGLEADER OF HERETICS” emblazoned across the front. Thus, Jan Hus was declared to be an “obstinate heretic” and “a disciple of Wycliffe.” Consequently, he was deposed from the priesthood and sentenced to death.
The execution of Jan Hus in Constance, Germany
When face to face with the executioner Hus spoke these prophetic words, “You are now going to burn a goose (“Hus” signifying “goose” in the Bohemian language), but in a century you will have a swan which you can neither roast nor boil!” Unknown to Jan Hus the great German reformer Martin Luther (1483-1546) would claim the swan as his own symbol. In the midst of the flames Jan Hus bravely sang Kyrie Eleeson (a Christian prayer, meaning “Lord, have mercy”). The influence of the life of Jan Hus, even in death, was significant. Hus was declared a national hero and became the catalyst of an even greater reform movement in Bohemia. Although Jan Hus died in 1415, the entire Czech nation aligned itself with the efforts of reform until 1620 when they were conquered and were forced to return to Roman Catholicism. To this day both the doctrines John Wycliffe and Jan Hus are considered to be heretical by the Roman Catholic Church. Consider this revealing entry in The Catholic Encyclopedia:
Heresies – Forerunners of Luther, taking their cue from the anarchists, were the Wyclif heresy and that of John Huss. Wyclif, a Yorkshireman, born about 1326, became a well-educated reformer who maintained among other teachings that God is sovereign but man in the state of grace becomes sovereign over the entire universe through God; hence the Papacy lost its power. The Hussites following John Huss who was born in 1369, came forward with a strange collection of teachings such as: the scriptures alone are the source of truth, the papacy is only an institution in which Christ has no part, all superiors of religious orders lose their authority if they fall into sin, and that the Church is made up only of the predestined, and that predestination is infallible. Some of these ideas were to recur later when Luther took up his reform.
Broderick, ed., The Catholic Encyclopedia, 261
The animosity that leaders in the Roman Catholic Church have against both John Wycliffe and Jan Hus has not diminished despite the fact that five hundred years have now passed. As some wise men have noted, “Hatred dies a hard death.”
These somber words, however, were not the end of the story—for God was at work in raising-up other men who would carry forth the truth of the gospel in the years ahead. Merle D’Aubigne summarizes the impact of Jan Hus’ ministry in this way,
John Huss preached in Bohemia a century before Luther preached in Saxony. He seems to have penetrated deeper than his predecessors into the essence of Christian truth. He prayed to Christ for grace to glory only in his cross and in the inestimable humiliation of his sufferings. But his attacks were directed less against the errors of the Romish church than the scandalous lives of the clergy. Yet he was, if we may be allowed he expression, the John-Baptist of the Reformation. The flames of his pile kindled a fire in the Church that would cast a brilliant light into the surrounding darkness, and whose glimmerings were not to be so readily extinguished.
D’Aubigne, History of the Reformation, vol. 1, 92
Thus, Jan Hus became the preeminent catalyst of reform in central Europe during the 15th century. What John Wycliffe initiated in England, Jan Hus carried on in Europe, and Luther, Zwingli, Bucer, Melanchthon, Calvin, Bullinger, Knox, and many others would carry throughout the entire world.
Resources for Further Study:
Broderick, Robert C. ed. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Revised Edition. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1987.
D’Aubigne, Merle. The History of the Reformation in the 16th Century. Volume 1. Dublin, Ireland: James M’Glashan, 1849; Harrisonburg, VA: Sprinkle Publications, 2001.
Douglas, J.D. ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Avignon,” by James Taylor
“Bohemian Brethren,” by Peter Toon
“Constance, Council of,” by Robert G. Clouse
“Czechoslovak Church,” by J. G. C. Norman
“Great Schism, The,” by C. T. McIntire
“Hus, Jan,” by Matthew Spinka
“Luther, Martin,” by Carl S. Meyer
“Reformation, The,” by Robert D. Linder
“Wycliffe, John,” Robert G. Clouse
Christy-Murray, David. A History of Heresy. London, Great Britain: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Coffin, Charles C. The Story of Liberty. Originally published in 1879. Reprint, Gainesville, FL: Maranatha Publications, 1987.
Douglas, J.D. ed. Who’s Who In Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.
Dowley, Tim ed., The History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford, Great Britain: Lion Publishers, 1990.
Fox, John. Fox’s Book of Martyrs. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1967.
Houghton, S.M. Sketches from Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Hus, John. “On Simony” in Advocates of Reform: From Wyclif to Erasmus. Edited by Matthew Spinka. Translated by Ford Lewis Battles. Library of Christian Classics, no. 16. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1953.
Hus, John. “On the Church” in A Concise History of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Edited by Tony Lane. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.
Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity. Volume 1. Revised Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, 1975.
Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2012 – All Rights Reserved
Each Thursday morning I have the joy of teaching four men from our church: Albert, Rick, David, and Boyd. We call ourselves the Theology Study Group or “TSG.” Currently we are investigating the Attributes of God–and this is a BIG subject to be sure! Besides rooting everything in the Bible I am trying to help each man apply these truths as they go about shepherding others. Jesus commissioned his followers to “make disciples,” and that is what we are seeking to do. Here are some of our study materials–all very fine books!
“People have presuppositions, and they will live more consistently on the basis of these presuppositions than even they themselves may realize. By presuppositions we mean the basic way an individual looks at life, his basic world view, the grid through which he sees the world. Presuppositions rest upon that which a person considers to be the truth of what exists. People’s presuppositions lay a grid for all they bring forth into the external world. Their presuppositions also provide the basis for their values and therefore the basis for the decisions…most people catch their presuppositions from their family and surrounding society the way a child catches measles. But people with more understanding realize that their presuppositions should be chosen after a careful consideration of what world view is true. When all is done, when all the alternatives have been explored, ‘not many men are in the room’—that is, although world views have many variations, there are not many basic world views or basic presuppositions.” (Schaeffer, How Should We Then Live?, 20)
John Knox preaching at St. Andrew’s Cathedral while under threat of death
Written by Dr. Marcus Serven
“A man with God on his side is always in the majority.” John Knox
Introduction:
Jesus Christ instructed his disciples in the Great Commission to “Go therefore and make disciples of all the nations…baptizing them…and teaching them.” (Matthew 28:18-20) Why, then, should we as modern day disciples of Jesus Christ who are keenly interested in obeying that commission look back five hundred years to the time of the Protestant Reformation? We do this for a number of important reasons. First, because the gospel became more and more obscured by the “traditions of men” throughout the Medieval Period and the later Middle Ages. Thankfully, God raised-up a number of key men, such as John Knox, who rediscovered the gospel during the Reformation and widely taught it throughout Europe. Second, because this rediscovery of the gospel brought about a renewed interest in the Bible and as a result Europe was thrust out of its extended period of spiritual darkness into the light. Third, because the Reformation was not just a short time of revival, but it was an extended period of spiritual blessing that lasted approximately one hundred and fifty years in length. Let us pray that God would bring forth another extended period of gospel expansion during our own era. Fourth, because during the Reformation the gospel penetrated many differing classes of people, some of whom had been largely ignored and brutally oppressed by the Roman Catholic Church. During the Reformation these people were Christianized and entire cultures were transformed by the application of the gospel. Fifth, by studying church history we can learn what we should be doing in our own time to obey the Great Commission.
Let me give an illustration. In many ways, the church of the Medieval Period and the later Middle Ages had become like a giant ship whose hull was so encrusted with barnacles and seaweed that it could barely move through the water. Instead of racing through the ocean at top speed, this ship (i.e. the church) had gotten lower in the water and slower in its speed. In essence, it had become so burdened with the excessive weight of the “traditions of men” that the gospel was completely obscured. The only way for this situation to change for the better was for the Lord to raise-up a number of godly men (e.g. the Reformers) who would metaphorically take the ship (the church) into a dry dock and scrape its sides getting rid of all that encumbered it. Once this was done, then the church—like a freshly cleaned and painted ship—would be able to race through the water at top speed once again. This is what happened during the time of the Reformation.
Now, let me make one qualification before I go any further in this historical article; several scholarly men have been searching for the source of John Knox’s rousing cry that I have used in my title—“Give me Scotland, or I die!”—but the direct source of this quotation has eluded us. Nevertheless, Knox’s exclamation wonderfully summarizes his passion to spread the gospel throughout his own home land—and no one who has studied his life disputes that! Therefore, I believe that it is safe to attribute this quotation to John Knox even though the precise location of it remains unknown.
A Brief Sketch of John Knox’s Life:
John Knox (1514-1572)
John Knox was born in 1514 to the family of a middle-class farmer in southern Scotland. Although John’s father was not well off, he did have enough money to send him to study at St. Andrews University. It was planned by his father that John would become a priest in the Roman Catholic Church. At St. Andrews, John studied under a well-known critic of the Roman Catholic Church, John Major (c.1467-1550). In his lectures Professor Major encouraged the return of the Roman Catholic Church to a simplified form of ecclesiastical government, which he argued was practiced by the New Testament Church. Church leadership was to be in the hands of the local elders and deacons and only when there were weightier matters to resolve were these men gathered together into presbyteries and synods. He also spoke with favor of students familiarizing themselves with the rediscovered truth of “justification by faith alone” which was coming out of Germany from the prolific pen of Martin Luther (1483-1546). No doubt John Major had a powerful impact on the bright young Knox, exposing him to many of the arguments supporting the growing reform movement.
Nevertheless, upon his graduation from St. Andrews University in 1540 Knox followed the wishes of his father and took up orders as a Roman Catholic priest. In addition to his priestly duties, which were few, Knox also served as a Papal notary authenticating legal documents. In many respects, Knox had accomplished all that his earthly father had dreamed about for his son: he had the endorsement of the church, the prestige of higher education, and sufficient money from his work as a notary. However God, his heavenly Father, would not let John Knox be content with all of his worldly accomplishments, but would instead, draw him to a living faith in Christ. The spiritual revolution that was currently spreading like a flood throughout Germany, France, and Switzerland would soon burst onto the spiritually-dry shores of Scotland and England. God was on the move revitalizing His church with rediscovered New Testament truth.
At the time of John Knox’s ordination in 1540, King Henry VIII (1491-1547) ruled England. Against the wishes of the Pope, Henry divorced his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, in 1534 and started his own national church, the Church of England. Without really knowing it, Henry had aligned England with the Protestant cause. As to religion, the popular maxim of the age was this: “As the King believes, so does the nation”. Thus, England became a country where Protestant ideas were tolerated within the framework of the Anglo-Catholic theology of the Church of England. The Scottish lands, on the other hand, were separated from England politically and ecclesiastically being ruled by Roman Catholic monarchs. As a result, the growth of Protestant ideas in Scotland was often regarded as rebellion against the political authorities. Scotland seemed destined to remain Roman Catholic, unless, of course, God raised-up a champion of the Protestant cause in Scotland. This man was John Knox.
His Conversion:
George Wishart (c.1513-1546)
While serving as a private boy’s tutor to some wealthy Scottish Lords, Knox became further exposed to Protestant ideas. He taught his three young students grammar, classical languages, philosophy, mathematics, catechism, and the Bible. While teaching through the Gospel of John, specifically the High Priestly Prayer of Jesus in chapter 17, God’s Word made a strong impact on Knox. Much later Knox requested upon his death bed that the entire 17th chapter of John’s Gospel be read aloud to him because it was here that he claimed “I cast my first anchor”. His exact conversion is difficult to determine, however in 1545 he began to manifest strong evidence of the New Birth when he became known as the bodyguard for the Scottish preacher George Wishart (c.1513- 1546). When Wishart preached, Knox would stand behind him with a large two-handed sword to defend him from his enemies! When Wishart’s foes grew ever bolder in their threats, the controversial preacher urged Knox to flee saying, “Nay return to your bairns (students), and God bless you. One is sufficient for a sacrifice.” Wishart was eventually captured by the Roman Catholic authorities and burned at the stake as a heretic on March 1, 1546. This was a crucial turning point for Knox. In revenge, several young Scottish Lords assassinated Cardinal Beaton, Wishart’s accuser, oppressor, and judge. As a result, Knox became thoroughly caught up in the Protestant rebellion and took refuge from warring Roman Catholic soldiers in St. Andrews Castle. He continued to teach his students who were also residing in the protection of the castle with their families.
His Call to Ministry:
Knox’s call to the ministry came through the encouragement and exhortation of John Rough, the castle chaplain. One Sunday during a sermon on the election of ministers, Rough preached the following words directing them to Knox,
Brother, ye shall not be offended, albeit I speak unto you that which I have in charge, even from all those here present: In the name of God, and of his Son Jesus Christ, and in the name of these that presently call you by my mouth, I charge you, that ye refuse not this holy vocation, but, as ye tender the Glory of God, the increase of Christ His Kingdom, the edification of your brethren, and the comfort of me, oppressed by the multitude of labors, that ye take upon you the public office of preaching, even as ye look to avoid God’s heavy displeasure, and desire that he shall multiply his graces upon you.” In the end, he said to those present: “Was not this your charge to me? Do ye not approve this vocation?” They answered, “It was, and we approve it.”
Knox, History of the Reformation in Scotland, 72
The ruins of St. Andrew’s Castle, Scotland
After hearing these words directed at him, Knox burst into tears and withdrew to his chambers for several days. Yet, God had called him to ministry through the clear exhortation of John Rough and the people of the castle. Shortly after this, Knox assumed his new duties as the chaplain and preached his first sermon. The castle garrison held out for a year. The pro-Protestant English fleet did not rescue them as it was hoped, but instead a pro-Catholic French fleet appeared in the harbor. The defenders of the castle lost hope and eventually surrendered to the French. The Scottish Lords were taken into captivity and the commoners, like Knox, served as galley-slaves on the French ship Notre Dame. Life in the galleys was a miserable existence. Each slave was chained to the ship and sat exposed to the open air day and night. Knox himself tells a memorable story about his personal experiences on the galley-ship Notre Dame. He writes in the third person, but most readers believe he is speaking of himself.
Soon after their arrival at Nantes, their great Salve was sung, and a glorious painted Lady was brought in to be kissed, and, amongst others, was presented to one of the Scottishmen then chained. He gently said, “Trouble me not. Such an idol is accursed; therefore I will not touch it.” The Patron (Skipper) and the Arguesyn (Lieutenant), with two officers, having the chief charge of all such matters, said, “Thou shalt handle it”; and they violently thrust it to his face, and put it betwixt his hands. He, seeing the extremity, took the idol, and advisedly looking about him, cast it into the river, and said: “Let our Lady now save herself. She is light enough; let her learn to swim!” After that was no Scotsman urged with that idolatry!
Knox, History of the Reformation in Scotland, 94-95
There were also times of desperation and severe sickness on the galley-ship. Knox, relates one episode where he was near death and only recovered by the intervention of the Lord. He relates,
Master James Balfour and John Knox being in one galley, and being wondrous familiar, Master James would sometimes ask Knox’s judgment, “If he thought that ever they should be delivered?” Whose answer was ever, from the day they entered into the galleys, “God will delver us from this bondage, to His glory, even in this life.” Lying betwixt Dundee and St. Andrews, the second time the galleys returned to Scotland, the said John Knox being extremely sick that few hoped his life, Master James willed him to look to the land, and asked him if he knew it; who answered, “Yes; I know it well. I see the steeple of that place where God first in public opened my mouth to His glory, and I am fully persuaded, how weak soever I now appear, I shall not depart this life till my tongue shall glorify His Holy Name in the same place.” This reported Master James in presence of many famous witnesses many years before ever John Knox set his foot in Scotland this last time to preach.
Knox, History of the Reformation in Scotland, 95-96
It was ten years later before this prophetic desire came to pass. Finally at the appeal of the English King, Edward VI (1537-1553), Knox and a few others were released by the French. Knox returned to England where he was offered a position as preacher at Berwick in northern England. Several years of fruitful ministry followed and he became well known throughout England as a great preacher. Here he also met his future wife, Marjorie, and her influential mother, Elizabeth Bowes. Subsequently, Knox served a church in Newcastle and as one of the King’s chaplains in London.
His Flight to the Continent:
When Mary I (1516-1558), the infamous “Bloody Mary”, came to power in 1553 after the untimely death of Edward VI many Protestant leaders had to flee for their lives. Queen Mary I was determined to restore the Roman Catholic faith to England and sought to accomplish this through the severe persecution of Protestants. Under her reign such notable reformers as Thomas Cranmer, Nicolas Ridley, and Hugh Latimer were executed. Knox first fled to the continent, then secretly returned to marry Marjorie Bowes in 1555 and returned to Geneva. While there, Knox studied at the academy under John Calvin.
John Calvin (1509-1564)
Knox described Geneva in this way: “[it] is the most perfect school of Christ since the days of the Apostles. In other places, I confess Christ to be truly preached; but manners and religion so sincerely reformed, I have not yet seen in any other place.” (Sefton, John Knox, 22) He kept busy by pastoring a church of English speaking refugees and his wife bore him two sons, but his mind was often on Scotland. His controversial tract “The First Blast of The Trumpet Against The Mostrous Regiment Of Women” delivered a torrid criticism against the woman rulers of his day, notably “Bloody Mary” of England, Catherine de Medici of France, and Mary of Guise (the Queen Mother) in Scotland. Each of these women Knox identified as “Jezebels.” He passionately wrote,
Such as have more pleasure in light than in darkness may clearly perceive that Deborah did usurp no such power nor authority as our Queens do this day claim; but that she was indued with the spirit of wisdom, of knowledge, and of the true fear of God, and by the same she judged the facts of the rest of the people. She rebuked their defection and idolatry, yea, and also did redress to her power the injuries that were done by man to man. But all this, I say she did by the spiritual sword, that is, by the Word of God, and not by any temporal regiment or authority which she did usurp over Israel, in which, I suppose, at that time there was no lawful Magistrate, by the reason of their great affliction…And so I doubt not but Deborah judged, what time Israel had declined from God, rebuking their defection, and exhorting them to repentance, without usurpation of any civil authority: And if people gave unto her for a time any reverence or honour, as her godliness and happy counsel did well deserve, yet was it no such empire as our monsters claim; for which of her sons or nearest kinsmen left she ruler and judge in Israel after her? The Holy Ghost expresseth no such thing: whereof it is evident, that by her example God offereth no occasion to establish any regiment of Women above men, realms, and nations.
Knox, The First Blast of the Trumpet, quoted in Sefton, 92-93
Some have unjustly accused Knox of being overly hateful toward women, however, his passion for the Protestant cause out-weighed his allegiance to the rulers of his day whether they were male or female. It was obvious to all that he had very tender attitudes toward his young wife, and carried on a large correspondence with other women in the reform movement.
His Return to Scotland:
Finally, with the death of Mary I in 1558, and the beginning of a renewed Protestant insurgency in Scotland, Knox returned to Edinburgh in 1559. Five days after his arrival the Scottish authorities placed a price on his head. One of his first letters to his congregation in Geneva asked for additional funds so that he could buy a faster horse! But God spared his life on numerous occasions and he was used as a great recruiter for the Protestant cause. One critic complained that Knox’s preaching could “put life into them more than 500 trumpets.” Thinking back to previous days in the galley-ship, Knox then resolved to fulfill the prophetic statement he had uttered by faith,
John Knox minded to preach in St. Andrews on Sunday [4th June 1559]. The Archbishop, hearing of the Reformation to be made in his Cathedral Church, thought time to stir, or else never; and therefore assembled his colleagues and confederate fellows, besides his other friends, and came to the town upon the Saturday at night, accompanied with a hundred spears, of mind to have stopped John Knox…The Archbishop affirmed that he would not suffer it, considering that by his commandment the picture of the said John was before burnt. He willed, therefore, an honest gentleman, Robert Colville of Cleish, to say to the Lords, “That in case John Knox presented himself to the preaching-place in his town and principal Church, he should gar (cause) him be saluted with a dozen of culverins (muskets), WHEREOF THE MOST PART SHOULD LIGHT UPON HIS NOSE!” This was the Bishop’s good mind towards John Knox!
Knox, History of the Reformation in Scotland, 175-176
Many of his friends and supporters strongly urged him not to preach, but Knox would hear nothing of this caution and replied in the following manner,
After long deliberation, the said John was called, that his own judgment might be had. Many persuasions were made that he should delay for that time, and great terrors given in case he should enterprise such a thing, as it were in contempt of the Archbishop. He answered, “God is witness that I never preached Christ Jesus in contempt of any man, neither mind I at any time to present myself to the place, having either respect to my own private commodity, or yet to the worldly hurt of any creature. But to delay to preach on the morrow, unless the body be violently withholden, I cannot of conscience. In this Town and Church began God first to call me to the dignity of a preacher, from which I was reft by the tyranny of France, and by procurement of the Bishops, as ye all know. How long I continued prisoner, what torment I sustained in the galleys, and what were the sobs of my heart, is now no time to recite. This only I cannot conceal, which more than one have heard me say, when the body was far absent from Scotland, that my assured hope was, in open audience, to preach in St. Andrews before I departed this life. Therefore, My Lords, seeing that God, above the expectation of many, hath brought the body to the same place where first I was called to the office of a preacher, and from which most unjustly I was removed, I beseech Your Honours not to stop me to present myself unto my brethren. As for the fear of danger that may come to me, let no man be solicitous. My life is in the custody of Him whose glory I seek. Therefore I cannot so fear their boast or tyranny, that I will cease from doing my duty, when of His mercy He offereth me the occasion. I DESIRE THE HAND OR WEAPON OF NO MAN TO DEFEND ME. ONLY DO I CRAVE AUDIENCE. WHICH, IF IT BE DENIED HERE UNTO ME AT THIS TIME, I MUST SEEK FURTHER WHERE I MAY HAVE IT.”
Knox, History of the Reformation in Scotland, 175-177
As might be expected, Knox preached and all of the threats against him proved to be hollow words.
St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh
In 1560 Knox was able to bring his family to Scotland and he settled in Edinburgh becoming the minister at St. Giles Church. Here he was to have a solid and significant pulpit ministry for the next eleven years. He also wrote, along with five others, the Scots Confession which is Calvinistic in doctrine as the official statement of belief for the Scottish Protestant Church. Here are two articles from the Scots Confession,
Even after we are reborn, if we say that we have no sin, we deceive ourselves and the truth of God is not in us. It is therefore essential for us to lay hold on Christ Jesus, in his righteousness and his atonement, since he is the end and consummation of the Law and since it is by him that we are set at liberty so that the curse of God may not fall upon us, even though we do not fulfill the Law in all points. For as God the Father beholds us in the body of his Son Christ Jesus, he accepts our imperfect obedience as if it were perfect, and covers our works, which are defiled with many stains, with the righteousness of his Son. (Schaaf, The Creeds of Christendom, “Scots Confession”, Article 15)
Schaaf, The Creeds of Christendom, “Scots Confession”, Article 15
The notes, signs and assured tokens whereby the spotless bride of Christ is known from the horrible harlot, the false Kirk, we state, are neither antiquity, usurped title, lineal succession, appointed place, nor the numbers of men approving error…The notes of the true Kirk, therefore, we believe, confess and avow to be: first, the true preaching of the Word of God, in which God has revealed himself to us, as the writings of the prophets and apostles declare; secondly, the right administration of the Sacraments of Christ Jesus, with which must be associated the Word and promise of God to seal and confirm them in our hearts; and lastly, ecclesiastical discipline uprightly ministered, as God’s Word prescribes, whereby vice is repressed and virtue nourished.
Schaaf, The Creeds of Christendom, “Scots Confession”, Article 18
Unfortunately Knox’s wife, Marjorie, died shortly after her return to Edinburgh leaving him with the burden of raising two young sons (Nathaniel and Eleazar). Four years later in 1564, the fifty year old Knox married the seventeen year old Margaret Stewart the daughter of one of his most ardent supporters. Like his first marital relationship this union with Margaret also proved to be a happy marriage despite the age difference and the Knox’s were blessed with three daughters (Martha, Margaret, and Elizabeth).
His Conflict with Mary, Queen of Scots:
Mary, Queen of Scots (1542-1587)
In the year 1561 a beautiful, slender, and witty nineteen year old young woman returned to Edinburgh, Scotland full of enthusiasm for her new responsibilities. She was Mary, Queen of Scots (1542-1587), daughter of James V and Mary of Guise. Although she had officially become queen when she was only six days old, she had been shipped away to France for many years so that she could be prepared for her future duties. In the intervening time, her mother, Mary of Guise, ruled in her place. It was in France that Mary became an ardent Roman Catholic and saw herself as one who would eventually restore all of rebellious Scotland to its rightful religious authority—the Pope of Rome. The English ambassador to Scotland said of her arrival that all were enthralled by her presence “saving John Knox, that thundereth out of the Pulpit . . . of him all men stand in fear.” Indeed, people did fear the Protestant preacher John Knox, not because of his sword, but because of his words. Knox was a bold preacher of the Bible and its message of liberty in Christ. Mary, Queen of Scots later said of him, “I fear the prayers of John Knox more than the army of ten thousand men!”
John Knox House, Edinburgh
For six long years Mary and John Knox battled with a war of words that occasionally broke over into violence. Specifically, Knox felt that Mary’s celebration of the mass in her private chapel was idolatrous and in violation of the second commandment (Exodus 20:4-6). Also, she affirmed the “divine right of Kings” (i.e. that God had given her authority over the Scottish people) which Knox felt was in violation of the “divine right of the people” (i.e. to have a Queen who was submissive to God and to biblical law). When Knox’s writings which advocated armed rebellion against godless Kings and Queens were applied by his fellow Protestants to Mary’s reign, then it gave the Queen much to worry about. As a result, Knox and Mary had several stormy interviews where she accused him of open rebellion against her God-given authority. He responded by asking her to point out evidence of his rebellion and reminding her that she had the responsibility to shun all evil and to serve as an example of Christian behavior for the people, which she was not. He was accused of treasonous activity, tried, and acquitted by the Scottish Lords. This was a bitter disappointment for the Queen. Later, her assassins sought his life, but he escaped time after time. Eventually, he outlasted Mary’s reign of terror, which ended with her abdication in 1567, and he became the preeminent leader of the Protestant Church of Scotland.
His Lasting Influence:
One of the practical applications that John Knox developed in his theology was the Bible’s teaching on civil government. He believed that all magistrates served at God’s good pleasure (Rom. 13:1-2; 1 Pet. 2:13-14). Nevertheless, magistrates should be held accountable by the people to actually obey God’s Law (Ps. 2:10-12; Jer. 37:1-21). They are not a law unto themselves, nor are they free to establish their own laws. In essence, there is a “higher law” (i.e. God’s Law) that is above any of the laws which may be legislated and enforced under a magistrate’s authority. Knox argues,
Consider, my lords, that you are powers ordained by God (as before is declared), and therefore does the reformation of religion, and the defense of such as unjustly are oppressed, appertain to your charge and care, which thing shall the law of God, universally given to be kept of all men, most evidently declare; which is my last and most assured reason, why, I say, you ought to remove from honours and punish with death such as God has condemned by his own mouth.”
Knox, Selected Writings, “The Appellation,” 508
Therefore, evil and tyrannical kings, queens, princes, and magistrates can, in certain select circumstances, be resisted by the citizenry if they are led by the lesser magistrates (i.e. the doctrine of “interposition”). Knox insisted that it was the duty of godly citizens to remove evil and tyrannical leaders. Dr. Joseph Morecraft summarizes this position,
The American War for Independence was fought for this very reason — to resist the tyrannical rule of the English King, George III. Knox’s major contribution to the Reformation and to Western Civilization was his teaching on the legitimacy of resistance against tyranny, including the use of armed force by the citizenry, led by a lesser magistrate, against a tyrannical or idolatrous head of state, after all others efforts have failed. Christian citizens and lesser magistrates have the duty to remove tyrants from office. Moreover, armed resistance is justifiable, according to Knox, only if two preconditions have been met: ‘the first of which was the trying of other means, including prayer and patience. The second condition was that armed resistance must be led by legitimate lesser magistrates…’ Knox cited Jeremiah 37 as the scriptural basis for ministers advocating resistance against tyrannical authorities. Knox was not a revolutionary, however, as his life and sermons prove. Although he believed that resistance to tyranny was every Christian’s duty, he could also say, ‘We mean neyther seditions, neyther yit rebellion against any just and lauchfull authorities, but onlie the advancement of Christes religion, and the liberties of this poore Realme’.”
Morecraft, “Calvin’s Influence on Scotland,” in John Calvin: Man of the Millennium, 270-271
It was this kind of practical application of the Bible’s teaching that resulted in the rapid progress of liberty throughout the Western world. Evil and tyrannical governments were resisted and thrown off in Scotland, England, France, Germany, Holland, and in the American Colonies. Other theologians who came later would further develop Knox’s ideas, but the original seed came from Knox as he struggled with how to bring religious liberty to Scotland, his own beloved country.
Conclusion:
John Knox’s final resting place
Knox’s greatest triumph was that he introduced Reformed theology to Scotland and persevered through tremendous personal persecution for the sake of his faith in Jesus Christ. His most important book, The History of the Reformation in Scotland, provides an insightful picture of the difficulties of the Protestant reform movement. At his funeral, in November 1572, the newly appointed Regent of the Scottish government gave this glowing testimony of Knox: “Here lyeth a man, who in his life never feared the face of man; who hath been often threatened with…dagger, but yet hath ended his days in peace and honour.” Yet today, John Knox’s earthly remains lie ignominiously under a Scottish parking lot (space #23) located behind St. Giles Church in Edinburgh. There is little doubt, however, that Knox would shrug this personal slight off and boldly affirm the truth of Isaiah 40:8 “The grass withers, the flower fades, but the word of our God will stand forever.” The legacy of John Knox lives on, if not in Scotland, then throughout the world where the gospel is believed, preached, and taught.
Its a banner day! I just received three rare volumes on John Knox!
Select Bibliography:
Bond, Douglas. The Mighty Weakness of John Knox. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2011.
Cameron, Nigel M. de S., ed. Dictionary of Scottish Church History and Theology. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press, 1993
“Book of Common Order (1564)”, by H.R, Sefton
“First Book of Discipline”, by J. Kirk
“Kirk Session”, by A.I. Dunlop
“Major (Mair), John”, by J. Kirk
“Reformation, Scottish”, by J. Kirk
“St. Giles”, by G.I. Macmillan
Douglas, J. D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Beaton, David”, by J.D. Douglas
“Calvin, John”, by W.S. Reid
“Calvinism”, by W.S. Reid
“Common Order, Book of”, by W.S. Reid
“Discipline, Books of”, by Adam Loughridge
“Edward VI”, by P.W. Petty
“England, Church Of”, by John A. Simpson
“Geneva Bible”, by Robert D. Linder
“Genevan Academy”, by W.S. Reid
“Henry VIII”, by Robert Schnucker
“James VI (of Scotland) and I (of England)”, by Henry R. Sefton
“Knox, John”, by Richard L. Greaves
“Mary, Queen of Scots”, by Henry R. Sefton
“Mary Tudor”, by Peter Toon
“Presbyterianism”, by W.S. Reid
“Reformation, The”, by Robert D. Linder
“Scots Confession”, by W.S. Reid
“Scotland”, by W.S. Reid
“Scotland, Church of”, by W.S. Reid
“Wishart, George”, by J.D. Douglas
Knox, John. The History of the Reformation in Scotland. Charles J. Guthrie, ed. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, Reprint 1982.
Knox, John. Select Practical Writings of John Knox. The Committee of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland, 1845; Reprint, Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2011.
Lindsay, Thomas M. A History of the Reformation. 2 Volumes. New York, NY: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1949.
MacGregor, Geddes. The Thundering Scot. London, England: MacMillan and Company LTD, 1958.
McEwen, James S. The Faith of John Knox. London, England: Lutterworth Press, 1961.
McFeeters, J. C. Sketches of the Covenanters. Philadelphia, PA: The Second Church of the Covenanters, 1913.
M’Crie, Thomas. The Life of John Knox. Originally published in 1811; Reprint, Glasgow, Scotland: Free Presbyterian Publications, 1991.
M’Crie, Thomas. The Story of the Scottish Church. London, England: Blackie and Son, 1875.
Morecraft, Joseph. “Calvin’s Influence on Scotland” in Volmer, Philip. John Calvin: Man of the Millennium. San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum, 2009.
Murray, Ian H. A Scottish Christian Heritage. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2006.
Reed, Kevin, ed. Selected Writings of John Knox. Dallas, TX: Presbyterian Heritage Publications, 1995.
Reid, W. Stanford. Trumpeter of God: A Biography of John Knox. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1974.
Ridely, Jasper. John Knox. London, England: Oxford University Press, 1968.
Schaaf, Philip. The Creeds of Christendom. 6th Edition. Reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1983.
Sefton, Henry R. John Knox: An Account of the Development of His Spirituality. Edinburgh, Scotland: Saint Andrew Press, 1993.
Whitley, Elizabeth. The Plain Mr. Knox. Reprint, Ross-Shire, Scotland: Christian Focus Publications, 2001.
Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.
Dr. Marcus Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2013 – All Rights Reserved
