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The Protestant Reformation and Early European Presbyterianism (1500-1650)

April 22, 2025 / marcusserven / 0 Comments

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“For with you is the fountain of life; in your light do we see light.” Psalm 36:9

Introduction:

There are many significant Reformers who the Lord raised-up during the time of the Reformation. I am going to focus, however, on the four Reformers who made the most important contributions towards the growth and development of a thorough-going Protestant theology–Martin Luther, William Tyndale, John Calvin, and John Knox. These four church leaders emphasized the sovereignty of God, the utter sinfulness of humanity, the centrality of God’s justifying grace in salvation, the necessity of preaching the Bible, the proper administration of the Sacraments (Baptism and the Lord’s Supper), and a church structure based on the Bible (i.e. Elder-led). As a long-time Presbyterian Minister (since 1980), I am also extraordinarily interested in the development of European Presbyterianism. It is the foundation of Presbyterianism in America, To put it succinctly, this article will be a view of the lives and ministries of four Reformers from 30,000 feet!

Setting the Stage: Why was the Reformation necessary?

The coat of arms and motto of Geneva, Switzerland

The central reason why the Reformation was necessary was for the recovery of the gospel. Without it, the church had become a place of darkness. The motto for the city of Geneva, Switzerland during the Reformation explains this viewpoint well; it declared, Post Tenebras Lux (Lat. “after darkness, light!”). Moreover, consider this analogy: The Medieval church had become like a giant ship whose hull had become so encrusted with barnacles and seaweed that it could barely move through the water. Instead of racing through the ocean at top speed, this ship (i.e. the church) had become so burdened with the excessive weight of the “traditions of men” that the gospel message was completely obscured. The only way for this situation to change for the better was for the “traditions of men” to be stripped away so that the gospel message in its simplicity could be known once again. To accomplish this the Lord raised-up godly men (i.e. the Reformers) who took the ship (the church) into a dry dock where they scraped the sides of the church getting rid of all that encumbered it. Once this was done, the church became like a freshly cleaned and painted ship that was able to race through the oceans at top speed once again. The famous Reformation scholar Roland Bainton echoes this sentiment by saying, “The Reformation was above all else a revival of religion. So much is this the case that some have looked upon it as the last great flowering of the piety of the Middle Ages.”

Martin Luther (1483-1546) and the German Reformation:

The Father of the Reformation in Germany

Who was Martin Luther? Certainly he must be remembered as that preeminent Protestant Reformer who recovered the true gospel and rescued the Christian church from its slavery to the “traditions of men.” He began his religious career as a well-meaning, but misguided Augustinian monk. God endowed him with a remarkably curious mind that searched after truth—not just philosophical truth, but “true truth” that would actually make a difference in changing lives. He found that life-giving “truth” in the pages of Holy Scripture. There he learned that all men and women are inveterate sinners who are unable to help themselves. He also learned that God graciously sent forth his Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for sins, and that God provided the “gift of faith” so that we could believe and trust in the redemptive work of Jesus Christ on the cross. This discovery brought about a fundamental change in Luther’s life so that he realized that he had been justified on the basis of Christ’s righteousness and not his own righteousness. In gratitude he dedicated himself to live to the glory of God. The Lord used him to begin a spiritual revolution in Germany, which spread throughout Europe and in time to the rest of the world. Luther’s defense of the gospel took place at the Diet of Worms in 1521 where he stubbornly affirmed, “Here I stand; I cannot do otherwise; God help me! Amen.” He famously quarreled with Ulrich Zwingli over the nature of the Lord’s Supper. Luther also wrote against Desiderius Erasmus, the most well-regarded Roman Catholic scholar of the day. Luther took issue with Erasmus’ assertion that man has a free will when it comes to the matter of salvation. In contrast, Luther wrote in his famous treatise—The Bondage of the Will—that man is completely unable to contribute to his own salvation. Eternal salvation is totally dependent upon God’s free grace. A notable associate of Luther was Philip Melanchthon who helped to craft the Augsburg Confession in 1530 which propelled Luther’s theology throughout the centuries.

William Tyndale (c.1494–1536) and the English Reformation:

William Tyndale, the Father of the English Reformation

Long before the Reformation, God raised-up a significant individual to bring the Bible to England; his name was John Wycliffe (c.1329-1384). His Bible translation positively affected the spiritual well-being of his own country for over two centuries. In the early days of the Reformation, though, the Lord raised-up another intrepid Reformer to continue Wycliffe’s work; his name was William Tyndale. Little is known of Tyndale’s early life, however he had an innate gift for languages and it is reported that he became fluent in seven different languages—Greek, Hebrew, Latin, German, Dutch, French, and Spanish! Tyndale attended Magdalen Hall at Oxford University where he received a Bachelor of Arts in 1512 and a Master of Arts in 1515. Later while teaching at Oxford he became deeply disturbed by the lack of Bible knowledge amongst his students and resolved to produce a new translation of the Bible. He famously quarreled with an English clergyman and said, “If God spare my life, ere many years, I will cause a boy that driveth the plough to know more of the Scripture than thou dost.” This kind of combative attitude offended the leaders of the English church, and in time Tyndale was treated as a trouble-maker, an outcast, and eventually as a heretic. He fled to the Netherlands and quietly continued his work of Bible translation. The normal way of getting copies of his Scriptures into England was to smuggle them into the country hidden in a bolt of fabric. Several sympathetic Dutch merchants assisted Tyndale in this effort. Despite the determination of the authorities in the English church to intercept these Bibles, copies of Tyndale’s work spread throughout England. Finally, while in the Netherlands Tyndale was betrayed by a fellow Englishman and captured by agents of King Henry VIII. After suffering in a dark and dank prison cell for seventeen months he was put to death by strangulation and his body was burned (1536). His final words were, “Lord open the King of England’s eyes!” In a short time, Tyndale’s prayer was answered and his associate, Miles Coverdale, was able to produce a translation of the Bible sponsored by the leader of the English Privy Council, Thomas Cromwell. Three years after Tyndale’s death The Great Bible—which is comprised mostly of Tyndale’s work—was published in 1539 and spread throughout the land. Tyndale has been rightly called “The Father of the English Reformation.”

John Calvin (1509-1564) and the Swiss Reformation:

John Calvin, Reformer of Switzerland and Western Europe

Many Christians today have distinct impressions of who John Calvin was, but most have never read a single line from his Institutes of the Christian Religion, or benefited from the careful exegesis found in his Commentaries on the Bible. In brief, it must be noted that the Reformer John Calvin has often been misinterpreted, misread, and misunderstood. He is, perhaps, best known for his views on the doctrines of election, predestination, and reprobation. He is also known for his pivotal role in the prosecution of the arch-heretic Michael Servetus who rejected the Trinity and the deity of Jesus Christ. But, none of these disconnected pieces of information can demonstrate, in my opinion, the true character of the man. And so, who really was John Calvin? Hughes O. Old, a noted scholar of Calvin’s life and theology, states the opinion that, “John Calvin is chiefly remembered as a biblical scholar and a systematic theologian.” While it is clear that Calvin distinguished himself through his theological writing and teaching ministry, he also was the preeminent pastor of the city of Geneva. After being tutored by Calvin, the Scottish Reformer John Knox stated that Geneva was “the most perfect school of Christ that ever was since the time of the Apostles.” Following Calvin’s death he was succeeded in Geneva by Theodore Beza. The spiritual children of Calvin are found amongst the French Huguenots, Dutch Reformed, English Puritans and Pilgrims, Scots-Irish Presbyterians, and especially amongst the Presbyterians of North America and Korea. In time, these disparate groups around the world became known as “Calvinists.” It is the Calvinists who acknowledge the sovereignty of God over all things, the covenantal relationship that God has with his people throughout history, and who emphasize the grace of God in salvation. Good works naturally follow the regenerating work of the Holy Spirit, so that they are recognized as the “fruit” of salvation. Also, Calvinists identify their beliefs as a “Reformed theology.”

John Knox (c.1514-1572) and the Scottish Reformation:

Briefly stated, John Knox was born in Scotland, attended classes at St. Andrews University, experienced a life-changing conversion to Jesus Christ at twenty-nine, and a call to the ministry shortly thereafter. Following a year-long exile in St. Andrew’s Castle due to civil war, Knox was enslaved by the French and forced to row all over the North Atlantic. He came close to death while in captivity, but in God’s kind providence he was released and became a diligent and esteemed pastor in England. During the reign of Mary Tutor (i.e. “Bloody Mary”) he fled to Europe, and while there he ministered to English exiles in Frankfurt, Germany and later in Geneva, Switzerland. Knox studied Bible and theology at the feet of John Calvin. He was a husband to Marjorie Bowes, and after her untimely death, to Margaret Stewart; he was a father to two sons and three daughters. In 1559 he returned to his native Scotland where he courageously advanced the cause of the Reformation as an evangelist and later as the pastor at St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh. By his preaching and teaching, he was able to bring virtually all of Scotland to a thorough-going knowledge of the Lord Jesus Christ and he engendered in the Scots a stalwart resolve to advance Christ’s Kirk (or, Church) here on earth. The rallying cry of the Scottish Presbyterians (i.e. the Covenanters) was “For Christ’s Crown and Covenant.” This motto is directly connected to the preaching of John Knox, but it also expresses how the Scots rejected the claim that a King or Queen could rule over Christ’s Church. Knox and his followers assert that only Jesus Christ is head of the Church (or Kirk). After his death, Knox became widely known as the author of his gripping book, The History of the Reformation in Scotland.

The Westminster Assembly (1643–1648):

The Westminster Confession of Faith was composed during a time of intense strife and armed conflict in England (1642-1660). The two warring parties—the Royalists who were led by King Charles I and his son Charles II, and the English Parliament which was dominated by the Puritans, Independents, and Oliver Cromwell—struggled over the theological reform of the Anglican Church and the right of the reigning monarch to impose a religious system upon the English people. The English Civil War arose from this contentious struggle. In the midst of this conflict the English Parliament urged the writing of a statement of faith that would more clearly reflect the doctrines of the Protestant Reformation. As a result, the Westminster Assembly was made up of English pastors, scholars, and laymen; which consisted of 121 Divines, 10 Lords, and 20 Commoners. Representatives of the Scottish Covenanters were also invited to participate in the debate and formulation of a new Confession of Faith. These sessions were held from July 1, 1643 through February 22, 1649 and took place in St. Margaret’s Chapel, at Westminster Abbey in London, England. Amongst its key documents are a Confession of Faith in thirty-three chapters with numerous proof-texts from Scripture, a Larger Catechism of 196 questions, a Shorter Catechism of 107 questions, a Directory for Public Worship, and a Form of Presbyterial Church Government. Later a Book of Discipline, based on the Second Book of Discipline (1578) crafted by Andrew Melville of Scotland, was added to the Book of Church Order by many Presbyterian denominations to establish a procedure for dealing with church discipline and for settling disputes within the church. A volume containing a metrical version of the Psalms was also approved by the Westminster Assembly to be used in congregational and family worship. The Westminster standards were adopted by the Church of Scotland in 1647 and by the English Parliament in 1649. They are the sole foundational documents for all Presbyterian Churches throughout the world, especially those that are English-speaking. Those who hold to the Westminster Confession of Faith assert that the Bible is the primary standard, and the Confession of Faith and its Catechisms are considered to be a secondary standard.

If you would like to know more about…

— Martin Luther click here

— William Tyndale click here

— John Calvin click here

— John Knox click here

— The Westminster Confession of Faith & Presbyterianism click here

Resources for Further Study:

Atherstone, Andrew. The Reformation: Faith and Flames. Oxford, England: The Lion Press, 2011.

Bainton, Roland. The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Boston, Massachusetts: The Beacon Press, 1952.

Daniel, David. William Tyndale: A Biography. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1994.

Dawson, Jane. John Knox. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 2015.

George, Timothy. Theology of the Reformers. Revised Edition. Nashville, Tennessee: B&H Academic, 2013.

Kittelson, James M. Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and his Career. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Augsburg Publishing House, 1986.

Letham, Robert. The Westminster Assembly: Reading its Theology in Historical Context. Phillipsburg, New Jersey: P&R Publishing, 2009.

Lindsey, Thomas M. The Reformation: A Handbook. First Published 1882; Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2006.

The Confession of Faith and Catechisms. American Edition (1788). Jointly published by Great Commission Publications (PCA) in Atlanta, GA, and the Committee on Christian Education (OPC) in Willow Grove, PA, 2005.

Westminster Confession of Faith. First Published in 1646; Glasgow, Scotland: Free Presbyterian Publications, 1946.

Vollmer, Philip. John Calvin: Man of the Millennium. San Antonio, Texas: The Vision Forum Inc., 2008.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

J. I. Packer on Propitiation

April 12, 2025 / marcusserven / 1 Comment

“He made Him who knew no sin to be sin on our behalf, so that we might become the righteousness of God in Him.” 2 Cor. 5:21 (NASB)

Just recently I came across a very fine quote from Dr. J. I. Packer that I had copied out of his book, Knowing God, quite a long time ago. Packer sets forth–in classic Reformed style–the doctrine of propitiation in the sacrificial work of Jesus Christ. The word propitiation (Gk. hilasterion = to conciliate, appease, expiate) refers to the satisfaction of the wrath of God through the death of Christ (See: Rom. 3:25; Heb. 2:17; 1 Jn. 2:2; 1 Jn. 4:10). In short, Jesus becomes sin for his people and satisfies the divine wrath of our Holy God. In addition, he gives to them his righteousness in a “double imputation” (i.e. our sins are imputed to Him, and His righteousness is imputed to us). Consider Packer’s explanation of propitiation:

“The basic description of the saving death of Christ in the Bible is as a propitiation, that is, as that which quenched God’s wrath against us by obliterating our sins from His sight. God’s wrath is His righteousness reacting against our unrighteousness; it shows retributive justice. But Jesus Christ has shielded us from the nightmare prospect of retributive justice, in obedience to His Father’s will, and receiving the wages of sin in our place. By this means justice has been done, for the sins of all that will ever be pardoned were judged and punished in the person of God the Son, and it is on this basis that pardon is now offered to us offenders. Redeeming love and retributive justice joined hands, so to speak, at Calvary, for there God showed Himself to be ‘just, and the justifier of him that hath faith in Jesus.’ Do you understand this? If you do, you are now seeing to the very heart of the Christian gospel.”

— Dr. J. I. Packer, Knowing God, 170

Packer’s quote is an excellent reminder to us of the redemptive work that Jesus Christ accomplishes for the sake of his people. The Apostle Paul puts it this way, “Christ redeemed us from the curse of the Law, having become a curse for us–for it is written, ‘Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree'” (Gal. 3:13). Therefore, let us give praise and thanks to Almighty God for sending forth his Son to do for us what we could not do for ourselves. Jesus, by his sacrificial work on the Cross, makes it possible for us to escape the retributive justice of God and live as those who have been redeemed. Soli Deo Gloria!

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Here are three books by Dr. J. I. Packer that I treasure. Each one of them is great–but, Knowing God is preeminent!

Sources:

Abbott-Smith, G. A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament. Edinburgh, Scotland: T. & T. Clark Ltd., 1981.

Packer, James I. Knowing God. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1973.

Ancient Heretics and Sectarians (Part 1)

March 29, 2025 / marcusserven / 0 Comments

“Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep’s clothing but inwardly are ravenous wolves.” Mathew 7:15

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Introduction:

What has caused the rise of heresies, heretics, and the many sectarians who have twisted Scriptural doctrines related to the person of Jesus Christ? This is certainly a valid question to ask and to ponder. Sadly, the true Church has been plagued by heresies, heretics, and sectarians ever since Ascension of Jesus Christ into heaven (Acts 1:9-11). The sudden explosion of erroneous beliefs about Jesus Christ seems to defy explanation! Cyprian (AD c.200-258), however, the wise bishop of Carthage and no stranger to false doctrines, answered this important question in the following way,

Cyprian (AD c.200-258), the Bishop of Carthage

“We must guard against wily trickery and subtle deceit no less than open and obvious perils. And could anything more subtle and wily have been devised than this? The enemy has been exposed and laid low by the coming of Christ, light came to the nations, the sun of salvation shined to save mankind, so that the deaf received the hearing of spiritual grace, the blind opened their eyes to the Lord, the weak recovered strength in eternal health, the lame ran to church, the dumb prayed aloud. Yet, when he saw the idols abandoned and his seats and temples deserted through the host of believers, our enemy thought of a new trick, to deceive the unwary under cover of the name Christian. He invented heresies and schisms to undermine faith, pervert truth, and break unity. Unable to keep us in the dark ways of former error, he draws us into a new maze of deceit. He snatches men away from the Church itself and, just when they think they have drawn near to the light and escaped the night of the world, he plunges them unawares into a new darkness. Though they do not stand by the gospel and discipline and law of Christ, they call themselves Christians. Though they are walking in darkness, they think they are in the light, through the deceitful flattery of the adversary who, as the Apostle said, transforms himself into an angel of light and adorns his ministers as ministers of righteousness who call night day, death salvation, despair hope, perfidy faith, antichrist Christ, cunningly to frustrate truth by their lying show of truth. That is what happens, my brothers, when we do not return to the fount of truth, when we are not looking to the head and keeping the doctrine taught from heaven.”

— Cyprian, The Unity of the Catholic Church, art. 3; “Early Latin Theology” in The Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5.

The Apostle Peter portrays Satan as a “roaring lion”

This candid and compelling analysis by Cyprian exposes the “wily trickery and subtle deceit” of the enemy. Defeated at the Cross, the enemy “thought of a new trick, to deceive the unwary under cover of the name Christian.” And so it is, heresies, heretics, and sectarians have risen up confusing true Christians, and entangling those individuals “into a new maze of deceit.” As Jesus stated, they are “ravenous wolves” who have disguised themselves “in sheep’s clothing” (Matt. 7:15). The Apostle Peter warns, “Be sober-minded; be watchful. Your adversary the devil prowls around like a roaring lion, seeking someone to devour. Resist him, firm in your faith” (1 Pet. 5:8-9a). Therefore, every Christian should make it their goal to know the essential doctrines delivered from Christ and the Apostles so well that erroneous beliefs can be easily spotted and foiled.

A Glossary of Key Words:

— Heresy (Gk. hairesis = lit. “able to choose”; a peculiar opinion, an unorthodox doctrine, a heresy; heresiarch = a founder or leader of a heretical group)

— Orthodox (Gk. orthodoxia = lit. “right opinion”; meaning right belief in contrast to heresy or heterodoxy)

— Heterodox (Gk. heterodoxia = lit. “different opinion”; not conforming to orthodox standards or beliefs in religion)

— Apostasy (Gk. apostosia = the formal disaffiliation of, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person)

— Sectarian (Lat. secta = “party, school, faction” and sectarius = “belonging or pertaining to a schismatic sect”; excessive attachment to a particular sect or party, especially in religion)

The Ancient Heretics and Sectarians:

Below are some of the major heresies, heretics and sectarians who greatly troubled the Christian Church from its beginnings up to the 300’s:

The Ebionites (1st Century-on) — In summary, the Ebionites regarded Jesus as a man upon whom the Spirit of God rested in its fulness. In many ways the Ebonites manifested a view of salvation similar to the Judaizers criticized by Paul in Galatians (e.g. Faith in Jesus + Obedience to the Law = Salvation). H. L. Ellison explains, “The Ebionites exalted the Law, though they considered it contained false pericopes, rejected the Pauline epistles, and regarded Jesus as the son of Joseph and Mary, but elected Son of God at his baptism when he was united with the eternal Christ, who is higher than the archangels, but not divine. This Christ appeared in various figures from Adam on. His work was that of a teacher rather than savior…They…gradually dwindled away, their last remnants being swept away by the Muslim conquest of Syria.” (Ellison, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 326). The Apostle Peter boldly refutes this heresy by declaring, “He himself bore our sins in his body on a tree, that we might die to sin and live to righteousness. By his wounds you have been healed” (1 Pet. 2:24).

Docetism (1st Century-on) — (Gk. dokew = “to seem like”). In other words, Christ only “seemed like” a man. G. W. Grogan describes this heresy in the following manner: “In the history of Christian theology this is the view that Jesus Christ was not a real man, but simply appeared so. This undermines not only the Incarnation, but also the Atonement and Resurrection…The origins of Docetism are not biblical, but Hellenistic and oriental, and are due to the idea that matter is essentially evil and to a particular construction of the doctrine of divine impassibility. Alexandria was a melting-pot of Hellenistic and oriental ideas, and the home of some of the greatest Gnostic teachers.” (Grogan, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 305). For a sharp refutation of this heresy from the New Testament see the following verses: Jn. 1:14, 18; John 8:56-59; Col. 2:9, and Heb. 1:1-3, 8; 2:14-18.

Adoptianism (1st Century-on) — This is the heretical teaching that Jesus the “Man,” became Jesus the “Christ” at his baptism (Matt. 3:13-17). It has many variations but the most common view teaches that the “Christ” who joined with Jesus at his baptism abruptly left Jesus at the Cross. Essentially, Jesus died as a mere “Man” so that his saving work on the Cross is completely denied. The bodily resurrection of Jesus is also denied by this heresy. Others held that the “Christ” remained with Jesus and allowed him to be resurrected from the dead. Harold H. Rowden describes Adoptianism as, “The view that Jesus was a man of blameless life who became the adoptive Son of God. In the early centuries some maintained that the divine Spirit descended upon Jesus—a man of perfect virtue, sometimes granted to have been born of a virgin—at His baptism, and that He was deified after His resurrection. A form of Adoptianist theology was expounded by Dynamic Monarchians, e.g., Theodotus and Paul of Samosata.” (Rowden, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 13). Jesus himself destroys this false narrative by declaring, “‘I am the Alpha and the Omega,’ says the Lord God, ‘who is and who was and who is to come, the Almighty’” (Rev. 1:8).

The Parthenon in Athens, Greece stands as an enduring monument to the ancient Gnostic mystery religions

Gnosticism — This movement represents Greek philosophy at its highest level. The Gnostics (Gk. gnosis = knowledge) maintained that only initiates who paid a fee to the priests of the Greek “mystery religions” could understand the truth about spiritual matters. The essential idea of Gnosticism was that all “flesh” (Gk. sarx) was evil, and that all “spirit” (Gk. pneuma) was righteous. Therefore, a genuine “seeker” of spiritual truth could find the deep realities of life through a series of personal experiences, either by self-indulgence in sensuality (Hedonism), or by self-denial from all pleasure (Asceticism). It was the “personal experience” of the “secret knowledge” that was the measure of all reality to the devotee of Gnosticism. Applied to Christianity, Gnosticism doubted the full deity of Jesus Christ, and at other times doubted the full humanity of Jesus Christ. The Apostle John writes rebuttals against both errors—the denial of Jesus Christ’s deity (cf. 1 John 2:22), and the denial of Jesus Christ’s humanity (cf. 1 John 4:2-3). Either way, the views of the Gnostic Christians can only be described as heresy. John certainly had the Gnostics in mind when he wrote John 1:1, and 1:14-18. The Greek term “Word” (Gk. Logos) is a Gnostic term that represents an impersonal idea that bridges the gap between God and humanity. John co-opted this term, “the Word,” by declaring that “the Word became flesh and dwelt among us.” Such a bold proclamation would be inconceivable to the serious Gnostic! This, however, was divine truth to the Christian believer. The Apostle John, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, “took every thought captive” by strategically utilizing the very terms of Gnosticism and giving them a Christian meaning (cf. 2 Cor. 10:3-6). Moreover, the Apostle Paul warns, “See to it that no one takes you captive by philosophy and empty deceit, according to human tradition, according to the elemental spirits of the world, and not according to Christ” (Col. 2:8).

The Heretic Marcion was labled “the first-born of Satan” by Polycarp, the Bishop of Smyrna

Marcion (AD 85-160) — A Roman Presbyter and in time declared to be a heretic. He was raised in Sinope on the Black Sea, but traveled to Rome and settled there in the 140’s. He stressed that the god of the Old Testament was somewhat “evil” and the God of the New Testament was perfectly “good.” Marcion also rejected the full humanity of Jesus, preferring instead to think of Jesus as only appearing to be like a man (i.e Docetism). Hence, Marcion rejected the birth narratives of the gospels in Matthew and Luke, and claimed that Jesus appeared as a fully-grown man in the fifteenth year of Tiberius. For these heresies Marcion was excommunicated from the church of Rome in AD 144. W. Ward Gasque wrote, “Marcion stressed the radical nature of Christianity vis-a-vis Judaism. In his theology there existed a total discontinuity between the OT and the NT, between Israel and the church, and even between the god of the OT and the Father of Jesus. Jesus came to reveal the true God, who was totally unknown up to the Incarnation. The god of the OT, the demiurge, an inferior being who created the material world and ruled over it, was not exactly an evil being, but he was not good in the same sense as the God and Father of Jesus, a God of love and grace” (Gasque, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 629-630). In approximately AD 150 Marcion set forth a canon of approved writings for his followers which was in contrast to the widely-accepted books of the New Testament. This led later to efforts by the historic-orthodox Church to clearly set forth the twenty-seven books of the New Testament as an officially approved list (i.e a “Canon”) at the Council of Hippo (AD 393) and later at the Council of Carthage (AD 397). Polycarp the bishop of Smyrna steadfastly referred to Marcion as “The first-born of Satan,” and both Tertullian (Against Marcion) and Irenaeus (Against Heresies) wrote extensive treatises against Marcion and his heretical notions. By the end of the second century Marcion’s movement lost its strength and it ultimately disappeared. The Apostle Paul instructed the churches to, “…avoid foolish controversies, genealogies, dissensions, and quarrels about the law, for they are unprofitable and worthless. As for a person who stirs up division, after warning him once and then twice, have nothing more to do with him, knowing that such a person is warped and sinful; he is self-condemned” (Tit. 3:9-10).

The ecstatic visions of female prophetesses was a key feature in Montanist beliefs

Montanus (he started prophesying in AD 157) — Montanus was a self-proclaimed prophet from Phrygia who advocated a life of rigid asceticism. He associated with two prophetesses by the name of Maximilla and Priscilla. All three prophets claimed to be mouth-pieces of the Paraclete (Gk. paracletes, or the Holy Spirit) and brought forth the New Prophecy. They also claimed that they could forgive sins. Montanus had a very popular following, but eventually ran into trouble with the church authorities and was excommunicated. At the Synod of Iconium in AD 230 it was ruled that Monanist baptism was not valid. In many ways, Montanus could be classified as a fanatic, or sectarian, rather than a heretic; although it must be admitted that he was excommunicated from the true Church. His teachings drew many away from Christ to more of an “elitist mentality” that put his followers over and above other Christians. Clearly, this was not the teaching of Jesus Christ who urged his disciples to a life of humility and service to others (John 13:12-16). Central to Montanist doctrine was the imminency of Christ’s Return, the forbidding of remarriage (one marriage only), the keeping of regular fasts, withdrawal from the world, and being willing to die as a martyr. The saying of “Do not hope to die in bed…but as a martyr” was typical of the high commitment to self-denial practiced by his followers. Tertullian of Carthage was one of the more distinguished followers of Montanism. Overtime, however, Tertullian reformed the excesses of Montanism, so much so that the entire movement became known as Tertullianism. The Apostle Paul warns, “But even if we or an angel from heaven should preach to you a gospel contrary to the one we preached to you, let him be accursed” (Col. 1:8).

Novatian (c.200-d.258) — Novatian founded a small puritanical sect in Rome which took a hard line against those who had lapsed under persecution. The Novatianists prided themselves on being the “pure ones” (Lat. cathari) and therefore did not associate with many other Christians, especially those who had forsaken Christ during the persecutions (Lat. lapsi). In this way they were schismatic. H. D. McDonald writes, “Novatian demanded that the Christians who had apostatized during the Decian persecutions (AD 249-250) should not be welcomed back into the fellowship of the church. Novatian’s group formed themselves into their own party, under strict discipline. This separatist movement continued for many centuries. Their orthodoxy was never in doubt.” (McDonald, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 717). Novation was a gifted theologian who was known for his writings in favor of the Trinity. He was strongly orthodox in theology, but extremely puritanical in practice. As a result, the Novatianists formed their own churches and separated from churches they considered to be “impure.” Novatian died as a martyr during the Valerian persecution in AD 258. The Apostle Paul exhorts, “Therefore let no one pass judgement on you in questions of food and drink, or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath. These are a shadow of the things to come, but the substance belongs to Christ” (Col. 2:16-17).

Mani led many astray into his self-styled and syncretistic religion. Eventually, his favor with the Persian King evaporated and he was condemned and executed. Augustine was able to escape this “dark alley of deceit” and come to faith in Jesus Christ.

Mani (AD c.216-277) — Mani was the founder and leader of the group called the Manichaeans. Mani lived in Babylonia, but traveled extensively throughout Persia, India, and the Roman Empire once he found favor with the Persian King. His peculiar doctrines were a mixture of Persian religions, astrology, and some elements of biblical Christianity. He asserted that Jesus was “the Brilliant Light,” but he denied Jesus’ full deity. Asceticism was a hallmark of this group. J. N. Birdsall comments about Manichaean beliefs with this description, “The doctrine though claimed as a system is highly mythological. Two principles, Light and Dark, God and Matter, are eternal. The invasion of the Light led to the saving expedition of the Primeval Man, some of whose substance remained imprisoned in matter after his return. The creation of sun, moon, stars, and plant life was part of a plan to redeem this imprisoned Light. The appearance of Adam was a counterplot to retain Light imprisoned, through reproduction: “Jesus the Brilliant Light” redeemed him by a vision. The Jesus of the gospels is but an instance of the suffering of imprisoned Light in matter. The religious practice of Mani’s followers (among whom the “elect” or “righteous” ate no meat and abstained from sexual life) was an ascetic means of continuing the process of gradual liberation.” (Birdsall, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 624-625). In some ways, the Manichaeans are forerunners of the modern-day Bahai movement which has a similar set of beliefs. Augustine spent many years as a follower of the teachings of Mani before he finally came to a saving knowledge of Jesus Christ. In particular, he could never reconcile the dualistic nature of Light and Dark (i.e. Good and Evil). He slowly came to realize from his study of the Holy Scriptures that God is entirely good and righteous all together (1 Jn. 1:5; Jam. 1:13-15), that the “problem with evil” (Lat. theodicy) is thoroughly explained by the Fall of Adam and Eve (Gen. 3:1-24), and that the passing of the sin nature (the Imputation of Sins) to all of their descendants is a necessary consequence of the Fall (Rom. 5:12-19). Every human being inherits the sin nature (Original Sin) of Adam and Even, and each person is responsible for their own sins (Rom. 1:18-20; Eph. 2:1-3). The Prophets and the Apostles declare that it is only by the gracious substitutionary work of Jesus Christ on the Cross that a person can be delivered from the penalty and power of sin (Isa. 53:4-6; Rom. 3:23-26; Eph. 2:4-10; Tit. 3:4-7; 1 Pet. 2:24-25; 1 Jn. 1:7 and 2:1-2).

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Part 2 of “Ancient Heretics and Sectarians” is under preparation and will cover heresies from AD 300 up to AD 451 (the Council of Chalcedon).

Resources for Further Study:

These three valuable books were a great help to me in navigating through the complicated maze of ancient heresies, heretics, and sectarians.

Bettenson, Henry and Chris Maunder, eds. Documents of the Christian Church. Fourth Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.

Brown, Harold O. J. Heresies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy from the Apostles to the Present. New York, NY: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1984.

Christy-Murray, David. A History of Heresy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1976.

Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

“Adoptianism” by Harold H. Rowdon
“Apostasy” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
“Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
“Cyprian” by David F. Wright
“Docetism” by G. W. Grogan
“Ebonites” by H. L. Ellison
“Gnosticism” by Edwin Yamauchi
“Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
“Irenaeus” by David F. Wright
“Jesus Christ” by F. F. Bruce
“Justin Martyr” by G. L. Carey
“Lapsi” by David F. Wright
“Manichaeism” by J. N. Birdsall
“Marcion” by W. Ward Gasque
“Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
“Monarchianism” by Samual J. Mikolaski
“Montanism” by H. D. McDonald
“Novatus” by J. G. G. Norman
“Orthodoxy” by Keith J. Hardman
“Tertullian” by David F. Wright

Dowley, Tim. The History of Christianity: A Lion Handbook. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishing, 1990.

Greenslade, Stanley L., ed. Early Latin Theology: Selections From Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose and Jerome. Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1956.

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Kelly, John N. D. Early Christian Doctrines. Second Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1958.

Lane, Anthony N. S. A Concise History of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

“John and the End of the Apostolic Age” by Leon Morris
“Paul and the Missionary Enterprise” by F. F. Bruce
“Cyprian of Carthage” by Michael A. Smith
“Irenaeus: Adversary of the Gnostics” by Everett Ferguson
“Justin Martyr: Defender of the Faith” by Edwin M. Yamauchi
“Tertullian and Western Theology” by Gerald L. Bray

Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Bloomington, IN: Warhorn Media, Reprint, 2014.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

A Night Escape: John Calvin Flees Paris

February 7, 2025 / marcusserven

The University of Paris–founded in AD 1150

“And we know that all things work together for good to those who love God, to those who are the called according to His purpose.” Romans 8:28

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

In his twenty-third year John Calvin (1509-1564) experienced a “sudden conversion” (c.1532). Through the work of the Holy Spirit he came to understand the depth of his own sin, and his need for a Savior. In short, the Lord changed his heart and he was born again (cf. John 3:5; Titus 3:4-7). He had become a disciple of Jesus Christ, and his everyday practices, his purpose in life, and his future plans were all thoroughly transformed by the Lord. He became a regular attender at an underground church that had secretly begun to assemble for worship in Paris. He quietly led Bible studies and sought to disciple new believers. During the early days of the French Reformation it was dangerous to profess faith in Jesus Christ and to attend an illegal church. Only participation in the Roman Catholic Church was permitted; all other church services and religious gatherings were prohibited.

Pierre Robert Olivetan–John Calvin’s older cousin

At that time Calvin had just finished his law degree at the University of Orleans. Due to his conversion, however, he determined to change his focus from law to studying theology at the University of Paris. He hoped to become a teacher of the Bible and a theological writer for the cause of Jesus Christ. While at the University, he renewed his friendship with a number of old friends from his hometown of Noyon. He also reconnected with his older cousin, Pierre Robert Olivetan (c.1506-1538) who would translate the Bible into French (1535). Calvin would write the Preface to the translation. In particular, he became a close companion of Nicholas Cop, who was the older brother of his friend Michel Cop. Nicholas Cop had the unique privilege of being selected by Francis I, the King of France, to become the Rector of the University of Paris. In this prestigious role he served as a leader of all the students and all the faculties of the colleges that made up the University.

On All Saint’s Day, November 1, 1533, Nicholas Cop was required to give an address, or a sermon, to the assembled faculty, students, and the entire religious community. His sermon was based on Matthew 5:3, “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.” In it he contrasted the righteousness of keeping the law, which man cannot fulfill, with the saving merits of Jesus Christ. He also encouraged personal study of the Bible and the application of its lessons to all of life. This was more than the Roman Catholic clergy at the Cathedral School of the Sorbonne could tolerate, and they rose-up in anger charging him with “Heresy!” They also brought charges before the French Parliament. Warned of his imminent arrest, Nicholas Cop fled the city of Paris for fear of his life. Unable to apprehend Cop, the religious authorities began searching about for anyone else who might have been associated with Cop and the Protestant movement. It became known through various sources that Calvin had assisted in writing the sermon given by Cop in the University Chapel. As a result, they pursued him so that he could be arrested, tried, and imprisoned.

One artist’s rendition of John Calvin escaping from Paris disguised as a vine-dresser

Late one evening the police came to Calvin’s lodgings to seize him. As they were pounding at the door his friends distracted the authorities with conversation. In God’s providence, Calvin was able to escape out the second-story window while a roommate lowered him down on bed sheets that were tied together into a rope. Once the police came into his room, they found a manuscript of Cop’s sermon in Calvin’s own handwriting. This confirmed their suspicion that Calvin was involved with the writing of Cop’s sermon. He now was a fugitive whose name was known to the religious authorities. His lot was permanently cast, and from this point on he was identified as a prominent leader within the Protestant Reformation.

Calvin fled into the night in his bedclothes and escaped the next morning through the city gates dressed in the garment of a vine-dresser. Later he sought refuge from Margaret of Navarre (1492-1549), the King’s sister, who was sympathetic to the Protestant cause. The timid and mild-mannered John Calvin could no longer remain in the shadows. Although this was a very difficult time, God used all of these circumstances to further shape his character and to strengthen his courage. In time, he would become one of the foremost leaders of the Protestant Reformation. Indeed, “all things worked together for good” in his life—even those events that were frightening and greatly troublesome. Soli Deo Gloria! May God be praised!

An Addendum: Emmauel Stickelberger, the preeminent biographer of Calvin, notes, “Some, not all, among the more recent students of Calvin question the Reformer’s authorship of the Rectorial address of Cop, and therefore also Calvin’s flight. Their reasons are not convincing. Calvin’s contemporary and successor, Theodore Beza, has reported both incidents as facts in his, the oldest, Calvin biography. On the MS. fragment of the address by Cop which the Geneva Library guards, there stand the words written by an old hand, “Haec Johannes Calvinus propria manu decripsit, et es auctor.” Doumergue, who is over-accurate, has not the slightest doubt (Vol. 1, pp. 331f.) Beza describes this incident in detail in his Vita Calvini.” (See: Stickelberger, Calvin: A Life, Note 7 and 8, 155-156)

The entire text of the inflammatory sermon given by Nicholas Cop is included as an Appendix in the 1536 Edition of the Institutes; also here are two of my favorite biographies of John Calvin

Resources for Further Study:

Beza, Theodore. The Life of John Calvin: A Modern Translation of the Classic. Darlington, England: Evangelical Press, 1997.

Carr, Simonetta. John Calvin: Christian Biographies for Young Readers. Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2008.

d’Aubigne, Merle J. H. The History of the Reformation in the Time of Calvin. Four Volumes. New York, NY: Robert Carter and Sons, 1863; Harrisonburg, VA: Sprinkle Publications, Reprint, 2000.

Stickelberger, Emanuel. Calvin: A Life. Translated by David Georg Gelzer. London, England: James Clarke & Company, 1959.

Van Halsema, Thea. This Was John Calvin. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing Company, 1959.

Vollmer, Philip; with contributions by J. I. Good, and Joseph C. Morecraft, III. John Calvin: Man of the Millennium. Edited by Wesley Strackbein. San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum, Inc, 2008.

Walker, Williston. John Calvin: Organizer of Reformed Protestantism. New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904. Reprint, New York: Schocken Books, 1969.

Here are three books that would be suitable for children and young adults–each one includes the story of Calvin’s escape from Paris

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Inspiration and Authority of the Bible

January 28, 2025 / marcusserven

John Wycliffe’s Bible – Translation completed in AD 1382

“For the Word of God is living and active, sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing to the division of soul and of spirit…” Hebrews 4:12a

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Introduction:

What does the Bible say about itself? To me, this is a fascinating question because it’s answer demonstrates the firm foundation that our faith rests upon—the self-authenticating nature of the Bible. Simply stated, we believe that God has revealed Himself in the Holy Scriptures. This would be in contrast to God only revealing Himself in the created world (i.e. General Revelation). Instead, the Word of God asserts that the Lord has specifically revealed Himself in the sixty-six books of the Bible (i.e. Special Revelation). Thus, the Bible is more than a book of ancient writings, it is the very Word of God (Lat. Verbum Dei). In this respect, it differs from every other book that has ever been written. It is the Word of the Lord.

The Bible’s Testimony About Itself:

It is good for us to recall that the Bible contains God’s very own words (i.e. Verbal Plenary Inspiration), and that these words demonstrate the self-authenticating and self-attesting nature of the Bible. Consider these following citations from the Bible where it talks about itself (the italics are mine):

— In numerous citations throughout the Bible it says, “Thus saith the LORD.” This phrase is repeated 415 times in the Old Testament (King James Version). For example, see the following passages: Exodus 8:1; Joshua 24:2; 2 Samuel 12:7 where it is used. The expression “Thus saith the LORD” signifies that the words in the Bible are God’s very own words, and not merely the words of men.

— Deuteronomy 29:29 “The secret things belong to the LORD our God, but the things that are revealed belong to us and to our children forever, that we may do all the words of this law.”

— Deuteronomy 30:11-14 (vs. 14) “But the word is very near to you. It is in your mouth and in your heart, so that you can do it.”

— Psalm 19:7-10 “The law of the LORD is perfect, reviving the soul; the testimony of the LORD is sure, making wise the simple; the precepts of the LORD are right, rejoicing the heart; the commandment of the LORD is pure, enlightening the eyes; the fear of the LORD is clean, enduring forever; the rules of the LORD are true, and righteous altogether. More to be desired are they than gold, even much fine gold; sweeter also than honey and drippings of the honeycomb. Moreover, by them is your servant warned; in keeping them there is great reward.”

— Psalm 119:105 “Your Word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.”

— Isaiah 40:8 “The grass withers, the flower fades, but the word of our God will stand forever.”

— Isaiah 55:10-11 “…so shall my word be that goes out from my mouth; it shall not return to me empty, but it shall accomplish that which I purpose, and shall succeed in the thing for which I sent it.”

— Isaiah 66:2b “But this is the one to whom I will look: he who is humble and contrite in spirit and who trembles at my word.”

— There are numerous citations throughout the New Testament that read, “It is written…” signifying, (1) that the Old and the New Testaments are unified in their essential message (i.e there is continuity and not discontinuity); (2) that the Holy Scriptures are God’s Word and are therefore authoritative; (3) that Christianity is a historical faith built upon the prophetic utterances of the past that have now been fulfilled; and (4) that the Church in this present age can be instructed and encouraged by Prophets of the past. For example, “They told him, ‘In Bethlehem of Judea, for so it is written by the prophet’: ‘And you, O Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, are by no means least among the rulers of Judah; for from you shall come a ruler who will shepherd my people Israel.’” (Referencing the prophesy of Micah 5:2)

— Matthew 5:17-18 “Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them. For truly, I say to you, until heaven and earth pass away, not an iota, not a dot, will pass from the Law until all is accomplished.”

— Matthew 24:35 “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will not pass away.”

— Luke 11:28 “Blessed rather are those who hear the word of God and keep it!”

— Luke 24:25-27 “And he said to them, ‘O foolish one, and slow of heart to believe all that the prophets have spoken! Was it not necessary that the Christ should suffer these things and enter into his glory?’ And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, he interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning himself.”

— Luke 24:44-48 “Then he said to them, ‘These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still with you, that everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled.’ Then he opened their minds to understand the Scriptures, and said to them, ‘Thus it is written, that the Christ should suffer and on the third day rise from the dead, and that repentance and forgiveness of sins should be proclaimed in his name to all the nations, beginning from Jerusalem. You are witnesses of these things.’”

— John 5:39 “You search the Scriptures because you think that in them you have eternal life; and it is they that bear witness about me…”

— John 10:35b “…and Scripture cannot be broken.” (Jesus quotes from Ps. 82:6)

— John 17:17 “Sanctify them in the truth; your word is truth.”

— Colossians 3:16 “Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly, teaching and admonishing one another in all wisdom, singing songs and hymns and spiritual songs, with thankfulness to God.”

— 2 Timothy 2:9 “But the word of God is not bound!”

— 2 Timothy 3:15 “…and how from childhood you have been acquainted with the sacred writings, which are able to make you wise for salvation through faith in Christ Jesus.”

— 2 Timothy 3:16-17 “All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness, that the man of God may be competent, equipped for every good work.”

— Hebrews 4:12-13 “For the Word of God is living and active, sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing to the division of soul and of spirit, of joints and of marrow, and discerning the thoughts and intentions of the heart. And no creature is hidden from his sight, but all are naked and exposed to the eyes of him to whom we must give an account.”

— 2 Peter 1:19-21 “And we have something more sure, the prophetic word, to which you will do well to pay attention as to a lamp shining in a dark place, until the day dawns and the morning star rises in your hearts, knowing this first of all, that no prophecy of Scripture comes from someone’s own interpretation. For no prophecy was ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit.”

— 2 Peter 3:15-16 “…just as our beloved brother Paul also wrote to you according to the wisdom given him, as he does in all his letters when he speaks in them of these matters. There are some things in them that are hard to understand, which the ignorant and unstable twist to their own destruction, as they do the other Scriptures.”

By Scripture Alone:

As Christians our belief in the authority of the Bible is central to our faith. The Reformation rallying-cry, “Scripture Alone” (i.e. Sola Scriptura) well expresses this essential commitment. This means that the Bible is the sole source of God’s special revelation; it contains the Law, the Gospel, and principles for how we should live, worship, and think. John Wycliffe was the first Englishman to push forward the notion that the Bible should be translated into the common language of the people. James Wiley, a famous historian of the Reformation, wrote, “What Wycliffe did in the field of theology was not to compile a system, but to give a plain exposition of Scripture; to restore to the eyes of men, from whom they had long been hidden, those truths which are for the healing of their souls. He left it for those who should come after him to formulate the doctrines which he deduced from the inspired page.” (Wiley, The History of Protestantism, Vol. I, 128)

Roughly 140 years later, Martin Luther based his whole argument for the Gospel at the Diet of Worms (April 21, 1521) on the phrase, “My conscience is captive to the Word of God.” Thus, the affirmation “Scripture Alone” (i.e. Sola Scriptura) is commonly referred to as the “formal principle” of the Reformation (Isa. 40:8; Jn. 5:39, 10:35; 2 Tim. 3:14-17, Heb. 4:12-13). This belief represents the concept that the Bible is absolutely foundational to the Christian life. To illustrate this thought, when Luther was asked about the success of the Reformation, he confidently stated, “I simply taught, preached, wrote God’s Word; otherwise I did nothing. And then, while I slept, or drank Wittenberg beer with my Philip and my Amsdorf, the Word so greatly weakened the papacy that never a prince or emperor did such damage to it. I did nothing. The Word did it all” (Quoted by Timothy George, Theology of the Reformers, 2nd Edition, 55). Luther’s bold statement demonstrates the power and authority of the Word of God to convict individuals of their sins, to transform human lives, and to sustain God’s people in the midst of the trials and tribulations of this earth.

A few years later the English reformer William Tyndale went even further by stating that “It was impossible to establish the lay people in any truth, except the Scripture were plainly laid before their eyes in their mother tongue.” With this vision burning in his heart, Tyndale was indefatigable in his efforts. Due to numerous threats upon his life, Tyndale fled to the Dutch Republic and to Southern Germany to continue his work. First, he translated the New Testament which was published in 1526. Secondly, he translated the books of the Pentateuch and published them in 1530. Ever watchful for the secret agents of Henry VIII, he arranged for copies of his translations to be smuggled into England hidden in bales of fabric imported into England. Through overwhelming odds he persevered in his work, but was eventually betrayed by a fellow Englishman and executed in 1536. His last words were, “Lord, open the eyes of the King of England!” This prayer was answered not long after his death when Henry VIII softened to the need for a fresh translation of the Bible. Tyndale’s associate, Miles Cloverdale, helped to produce the Great Bible (1539) which was distributed to every parish in England. Much of the text came from the work of William Tyndale.

Finally, consider what the writers of the Westminster Larger Catechism stated about their belief in the Divine nature of Holy Scripture with the following question and answer: “Question #4: How doth it appear that the Scriptures are the Word of God? Answer: The Scriptures manifest themselves to be the Word of God, by their majesty and purity; by the consent of all the parts, and the scope of the whole, which is to give all glory to God; by their light and power to convince and convert sinners, to comfort and build up believers unto salvation: but the Spirit of God bearing witness by and with the Scriptures in the heart of man, is alone able fully to persuade it that they are the very Word of God.” (Westminster Larger Catechism, Question #4)

Each one of these historical examples–John Wycliffe, Martin Luther, William Tyndale, and the Westminster Assembly–demonstrate the whole-hearted commitment that Protestants have made toward the centrality of Holy Scripture. Simply stated, the written Word is the primary means that the Lord has used to bring forth the Gospel. This is why the overwhelming majority of Protestants put a priority upon reading, preaching, and teaching the Scriptures.

Views on the Inspiration of Scripture:

Over the centuries Christians have formulated differing views on the inspiration of Scripture. In some ways, it could be stated that a few of these “views” are not even Christian at all; since they reject the full inspiration of the Scriptures. Other views reflect the genuine struggles of sincere Christians to better understand the nature of the Bible. Here are the five most common views of the inspiration of Scripture throughout history:

Natural — no supernatural element is involved; the Bible was written by men of great genius and ability. This view denies God’s activity of inspiring the Patriarchs, Prophets, and Apostles and therefore must be rejected.
Conceptual — the concepts, but not the actual words, are inspired. This view allows human beings to pick and choose which concepts are inspired and which are not. In essence, man stands over the Bible and makes judgments as to what is inspired or is merely the opinion of men. Therefore, this view of inspiration must be rejected as capricious, erroneous, and unreliable.
Partial or Fallible Inspiration — the Bible is inspired, but it contains errors. In particular, those who endorse this position question the Bible’s complete accuracy especially in regard to the length of creation days, the reality of Adam and Eve as the first man and woman, the nature of the Fall and the imputation of sin, the likelihood of a world-wide flood, the age of the patriarchs, various numbers that are recorded in the Old Testament historical books, the on-going nature of headship and submission in male/female relationships, and various selected miracles. This view is entirely subjective and it undermines the authority of Holy Scripture. The Bible stands above human culture and is not subject to all of the ever-changing attitudes of human society. Therefore, this view must be rejected.
Dictation or Mechanical — the writers of the Scriptures were passive instruments in God’s hand, like typewriters on which He wrote. This view, however, fails to recognize that the personal circumstances of the writers of Holy Scripture are also included in the text of the Bible. Admittedly, certain parts of the Bible were dictated, such as the “Ten Commandments” and “The Lord’s Prayer.” The majority of the Bible, though, demonstrates how the Lord spoke through the individual writers. For example, Job’s despair, Moses’ leadership struggles, David’s repentance, Mary’s wonder, Peter’s failures, and Paul’s humility. Each person is shown in a true and unvarnished light, and this adds to the credibility of the Bible.
Verbal, Plenary — the very words (Verbal) and all of them (Plenary) are inspired by God and written by men. There are no errors in the original autographs of the Bible (Inerrancy). However, it is admitted that those who have copied the Bible have made errors in the manuscripts; but these are minor in scope and do not effect the trustworthy character of the Bible. The Verbal Plenary Inspiration of the Bible is the historic position of Christians throughout the ages. This view correctly upholds the authority and inspiration of the Word of God.

Three Key Passages:

Both the Apostles’ Paul and Peter address the subject of inspiration. Clearly, they affirm the doctrine of the Verbal Plenary Inspiration of the Bible. Consider these three passages and what they say about the Bible.

#1 — 2 Timothy 3:16-17 “All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness, that the man of God may be competent, equipped for every good work.”

In essence, the Bible says of itself that it is fully “inspired” by God, or literally “God-breathed” (Gk. theopneustos). This clearly states that God fully participated in the writing of the Bible. Moreover, that the Bible is profitable for “teaching” (Gk. didaskalian), for “reproof” (Gk. elegmon), for “correction” (Gk. epanorthosin), and for “training” (Gk. paideian). With the end goal being that Christians are “equipped for every good work” by the teaching that is contained in the Bible. This is why the Apostle Paul can write elsewhere, “Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly, teaching and admonishing one another in all wisdom” (Col. 3:16).

#2 — 2 Timothy 4:9-13 “Do your best to come to me soon. For Demas, in love with this present world, has deserted me and gone to Thessalonica. Crescens has gone to Galatia, Titus to Dalmatia. Luke alone is with me. Get Mark and bring him with you, for he is very useful to me for ministry. Tychicus I have sent to Ephesus. When you come, bring the cloak that I left with Carpus at Troas, also the books, and above all the parchments.”

Note that this passage demonstrates that the individual personalities, styles, and challenging circumstances of the human authors are part of the Scriptures as well. None of the trials and difficulties of the people of God are hidden from the reader of the Bible. This fact should give us confidence that the Bible is not presenting an unrealistic portrait of the Christian life. This is why Jesus’ words are comforting to so many people—“Come to me, all who labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you, and learn from me, for I am gentle and lowly in heart, and you will find rest for your souls. For my yoke is easy, and my burden is light” (Matt. 11: 28-30) Jesus came to minister to “sinners.” (cf. Matt. 9:12-13)

#3 — 2 Peter 1:19-21 “And we have something more sure, the prophetic word, to which you will do well to pay attention as to a lamp shining in a dark place, until the day dawns and the morning star rises in your hearts, knowing this first of all, that no prophecy of Scripture comes from someone’s own interpretation. For no prophecy was ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit.”

The Apostle Peter testifies to the fact that, “…no prophecy of Scripture comes from someone’s own interpretation.” In fact, the Bible uniformly condemns false prophets throughout its pages by applying the simple test of “if the word does not come to pass or come true” then “the LORD has not spoken” (Deut. 8:22). Scriptures were written by “…men spoke from God.” It can be safely stated that the Bible has one author—the Holy Spirit; yet the human writers were “carried along by the Holy Spirit” (2 Pet. 1:21). The position of the Church throughout the centuries has been to accept the verbal, plenary inspiration of the Bible. This means that each word is inspired by God, and that all of them together are important to us. The full value of the Bible’s meaning can be obtained through careful study and prayer.

The Authority of the Bible:

Biblical authority is based upon the fact that God has given us these words. Man is not the judge over Scripture, but Scripture is the judge over man. Hence, either by direct statements, or by the principles that are contained in the Bible we can be confident that we are receiving God’s truth. These statements and principles can be applied to every human circumstance with confidence in knowing that the counsel received is from God himself. When we encounter passages that we do not understand then we follow the practice of having “the Bible interpret the Bible” (i.e. the Analogy of Faith). In other words, we shed light on the more difficult passages, by applying the meaning of the easier passages to them. Dr. Harold Lindsell notes, “Apparent discrepancies are no more than that. Additional information in a thousand instances has proven that the Bible’s critics were wrong.” As time progresses, it is fascinating to note the Bible remains as a trusted repository of eternal truth. Man’s “truth” is based on the shifting sands of opinion and presuppositions. Yet, as the Prophet Isaiah proclaims, “The grass withers, the flower fades, but the word of our God will stand forever” (Isa. 40:8).

Dr. Cornelius Van Til of Westminster Theological Seminary gives a fine summary of the doctrine of Biblical authority in the following quote:

“The Bible is thought of as authoritative on everything of which is speaks. Moreover, it speaks of everything. We do not mean that it speaks of football games, of atoms, etc. directly, but we do mean that it speaks of everything either directly or by implication. It not only tells us of the Christ and his work, but also tells us who God is and where the universe about us has come from. It tells us about theism as well as about Christianity. It gives us a philosophy of history as well as history. Moreover, the information on these subjects is woven into an inextricable whole. It is only if you reject the Bible as the Word of God that you can separate the so-called religious and moral instruction of the Bible from what it says, e.g. about the physical universe. This view of Scripture, therefore, involves the idea that there is nothing in this universe on which human beings can have full and true information unless they take the Bible into account. We do not mean, of course, that one must go to the Bible rather than to the laboratory if one wishes to study the anatomy of the snake. But if one goes only to the laboratory and not also to the Bible, one will not have a full and even true interpretation of the snake.”

— Van Til, Christian Apologetics, 19-20

Inerrancy, Infallibility, and Perspicuity:

There are three significant concepts that fit underneath the broad belief that Christians have in the authority of the Bible. They are inerrancy, infallibility, and perspicuity—what do they mean? The term inerrancy refers to how the sixty-six books of the Bible are free from error in all that is taught (e.g. factual, historical, and spiritual truth). The related term, infallibility, refers to how the writers of the Bible could not err since they were inspired by the Holy Spirit (Jn. 17:17; 2 Tim. 3:16-17; 2 Peter 1:19-21). Christians from many differing backgrounds teach that the Bible is infallible in faith and practice. Moreover, that the central message of the Bible is easy to understand; and this is called perspicuity. It must be admitted that various translations of the Bible may contain errors, according to the level of skill with which the translators did their work–but the original autographs do not err. This gives the Christian a confidence in the authority of the Bible. Moreover, it urges us to work hard to properly interpret the Bible by using the time-proven principles of biblical interpretation.

Conclusion:

In brief, it can be resolutely affirmed that the Bible is inspired, authoritative, inerrant, infallible, perspicuous, and sufficient. Through out the centuries of human civilization there have been many hostile critics of the Bible. But, the Bible has withstood all of these attacks and remained as the standard of objective truth in the midst of ever-changing subjectivism. We can thank God that we have a firm foundation upon which to build our faith. As the Psalmist states, “Your Word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path” (Ps. 119:105). Soli Deo Gloria!

These four books have been an immense help to me over the years. Each one is worthy of purchase and having in your own library

Resources for Further Study:

Archer, Gleason L. Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1982.

Berkhof, Louis. Manual of Christian Doctrine. Second Edition. Arlington Heights, IL: Christian Liberty Press, 2003.

Boice, James Montgomery, ed. The Foundations of Biblical Authority. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

Bruce, Frederick Fivey. The Canon of Scripture. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Academic, 1988.

Bruce, Frederick Fivey. The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? 5th Edition. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1960.

Comfort, Philip Wesley, ed. The Origin of the Bible:. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.

Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1984. See the following articles: “Analogy of Faith” “Bible, Authority of” “Bible, Canon of” “Bible, Inerrancy and Infallibility of” “Bible, Inspiration of” “Interpretation of the Bible” “Plenary Inspiration” “Verbal Inspiration.”

Harris, R. Laird. Inspiration and Canonicity of the Scriptures. Revised Edition. Greenville, SC: A Press, 1995.

Lindsell, Harold. The Battle for the Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1976.

Geisler, Norman L., ed. Inerrancy. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1980.

Geisler, Norman L. and William E. Nix. From God to Us: How We Got Our Bible. Chicago. IL: The Moody Bible Institute of Chicago, 1974.

George, Timothy. Theology of the Reformers. Second Edition. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2013.

McDowell, Josh. Evidence that Demands a Verdict. Two Volumes. San Bernardino, CA: Campus Crusade for Christ, 1972 (Vol. 1) and 1975 (Vol. 2).

Pache, Rene. The Inspiration and Authority of Scripture. Translated by Helen I. Needham. Chicago, IL: The Moody Bible Institute of Chicago, 1969.

Sproul, R. C. Scripture Alone: The Evangelical Doctrine. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2005.

Van Til, Cornelius. Christian Apologetics. Second Edition. Edited by William Edgar. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2003.

Warfield, Benjamin B. “The Westminster Confession and the Original Autographs” in Selected Shorter Writings. Vol. 2. Edited by John Meeter. Phillipsburg, NJ: The Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1973.

Warfield, Benjamin Breckinridge. The Inspiration and Authority of the Bible. Samuel G. Craig, ed. Phillipsburg, NJ: The Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1948.

Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.

Young, Edward J. Thy Word is Truth: Some Thoughts on the Biblical Doctrine of Inspiration. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, Reprint, 1957.

These four volumes might be a bit more difficult to read, but they are all extraordinarily valuable. I recommend them all for your study and reflection!

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

Ten Waves of Persecution by the Romans Against the Christians (AD 64-313)

January 15, 2025 / marcusserven

“For they did not love the present world but the one who died on our behalf and was raised by God for our sakes.” Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Why did the Romans persecute the Christians? At first the Romans merely saw the Christians as a subset of Judaism and therefore they were not persecuted by the Romans. After the dispersion of Jews from Israel and at the conclusion of the Roman-Jewish War (AD 66-74), Christians no longer enjoyed this legal protection and they became a target of the state. Their refusal to offer worship to Caesar earned them the title of “Atheists” since they would not acknowledge that Caesar was “Lord.” Moreover, their practice of eating the “body” and drinking the “blood” of Christ in the Lord’s Supper became an offense to the Romans. They falsely accused Christians of “cannibalism.” And so, what exactly was the policy of the Roman government? Consider this letter of inquiry from the Roman provincial governor of Bithynia, Pliny the Younger (AD 62-c.113) who sought advice from the Roman Emperor Trajan on how to treat Christians. He asks,

It is my rule, Sire, to refer to you in matters where I am uncertain. For who can better direct my hesitation or instruct my ignorance? I was never present at any trial of Christians; therefore I do not know what are the customary penalties or investigations, and what limits are observed…this is the course that I adopted in the case of those brought before me as Christians. I ask them if they are Christians. If they admit it I repeat the question a second and a third time, threatening capital punishment; if they persist I sentence them to death. For I do not doubt that, whatever kind of crime it may be to which they have confessed, their pertinacity and inflexible obstinacy should certainly be punished. There were others who displayed a like madness and who I reserved to be sent to Rome, since they were Roman citizens…An anonymous pamphlet was issued, containing many names. All who denied that they were or had been Christians I considered should be discharged, because they called upon the gods at my dictation and did reverence, with incense and wine, to your image which I had ordered to be brought forward for this purpose, together with the statues of the deities; and especially because they cursed Christ, a thing which, it is said genuine Christians cannot be induced to do.

— Pliny the Younger, Epistolae ad Trajan X.96; cited in Bettenson and Maunder, eds., Documents of the Christian Church, 3-4

The Emperor replied with the following advice:

You have adopted the proper course, my dear Pliny, in examining into the cases of those who have been denounced to you as Christians, for no hard and fast rule can be laid down to meet a question of such wide extent. The Christians are not to be hunted out; if they are brought before you and the offense is proved, they are to be punished, but with this reservation—that if any one denies that he is a Christian and makes it clear that he is not, by offering prayers to our deities, then he is to be pardoned because of his recantation, however suspicious his past conduct may have been. But pamphlets published anonymously must not carry any weight whatever, no matter what the charge may be, for they are not only a precedent of the very worst type, but they are not in consonance with the spirit of our age.

— Trajan to Pliny, Epistolae ad Trajan X.97; cited in Bettenson and Maunder, eds,, Documents of the Christian Church, 5

This revealing correspondence demonstrates how the Romans gave Christians an opportunity to recant from their worship of Jesus Christ, by acknowledging “Caesar is Lord.” If they did not then they would suffer the consequences. As would be expected, many Christians refused to recant and thereby they went to their deaths. Such a rejection of Jesus Christ was unthinkable to them. Hence, the persecution and martyrdom of Christians increased under Roman rule.

There were, however, others within the church who under pressure rejected Jesus Christ in order to spare their own lives. This situation produced an awkward crisis within the Christian church, and that was how to relate those who had given way to the Romans. Should those who denied the faith be readmitted to the church once the threat of persecution had diminished, or not? Over time three basic responses emerged: (1) to graciously readmit all of those who had previously rejected Jesus Christ; (2) to only readmit those who had rejected Jesus Christ upon their private and public repentance; or (3) to steadfastly refuse to readmit those who had previously rejected Jesus Christ since they could not be trusted. This crisis became a struggle between those who argued for a gracious response and those who argued for maintaining the purity of the church.

Why were Christians willing to endure persecution and martyrdom? Here are four reasons based on Scripture as to why Christians were willing to go to their deaths for the sake of Jesus Christ:

They had personally experienced a changed life and could not conceive of living as they had formerly lived. (See: “For me to live is Christ and to die is gain” Phil. 1:21)
They had witnessed the transformation of the lives of others who formed the true church, of which they were a part. (See: “For just the body is one and has many members, and all the members of the body though many, are one body, so it is with Christ. For in one Spirit we were all baptized into one body—Jews or Greeks, slaves or free—and all were made to drink of one Spirit.” 1 Cor. 12:12-13 And see: “Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed away; behold the new has come.” 2 Cor. 5:17)
They firmly believed that if they through death became “absent from the body,” they would surely be “present with the Lord.” (See: “So we are always of good courage. We know that while we are at home in the body we are away from the Lord, for we walk by faith, not by sight. Yes, we are of good courage, and we would rather be away from the body and at home with the Lord. So whether we are at home or away, we make it our aim to please him.” 2 Cor. 5:6-9)
They resolutely believed that the Father had demonstrated His power through the birth, life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Hence, they trusted they too would be resurrected unto life following their death. (See: Jesus said, “I am the resurrection and the life. Whoever believes in me, though he die, yet shall he live…” John 11:25)

Hence, we see that Christians have a foundation of trust in God that allows them to be persecuted and martyred. Nowhere in the Bible are Christians encouraged to seek after persecution and martyrdom—in some sort of self-fulfilling prophecy. Yet, they have been given spiritual resources that enable them to face it with courage.

+ + + + + + + + + +

Listed below are the “Ten Waves of Persecution” which were directed against Christians by the Romans. Note—many thousands of unnamed Christians died at the hands of the Romans. Only those notable individuals whose suffering and martyrdom were preserved in ancient literature are listed here. Many lesser known Christians suffered confiscation of their property, arrest, trial, imprisonment, torture, and death. They suffered for Jesus’ sake (Matt. 5:10-12).

The First Persecution, under Nero, AD 64-68 – Peter, Paul, Erastus, Aristarchus, Trophimus, Barsabas, Ananias the bishop of Damascus, and 100’s of other Christians in Rome are martyred. Some were covered in pitch and set afire in the Emperor’s garden. Even the most stoic Roman citizens were horrified by this level of barbarous cruelty.

The Second Persecution, under Domitian, AD c.90-96 – Simeon the bishop of Jerusalem, Clement of Rome, Dionysius the Areopogite, Nicodemus, and Timothy are martyred. The Apostle John after being boiled in oil was exiled to the island of Patmos in the Aegean Sea.

The Third Persecution, under Trajan, AD 98-117 – Ignatius the bishop of Antioch, Alexander the bishop of Rome, Symeon, Zozimus, and Rufus are martyred. Trajan’s policy was that Christians were to be executed when found, but not to be sought out. Anonymous sources were to be rejected as unreliable and unsound.

The Fourth Persecution, under Hadrian, AD 117-138 – Persecution continued along the lines of Trajan, but these purges were sporatic; Telesphorus the bishop of Rome was martyred.

The Fifth Persecution, under Marcus Aurelius, AD 161-180 – Germanicus, Polycarp the bishop of Smyrna, Justin Martyr, Pothinus the bishop of Lyon, and Blandina are martyred. Christians are unfairly blamed for natural disasters and other calamities.

Following the murderous carnage by the beasts, their handlers drive them back into their cages leaving the mangled bodies of the Christians in the arena

The Sixth Persecution, under Septimus Severus, AD 202-211 – Victor the bishop of Rome, Leonidas, Irenaeus the bishop of Lyon, Asclepiades the bishop of Antioch, Perpetua and Felicitus are martyred.

The Seventh Persecution, under Maximinus the Tracian, AD 235-236 – Pontianus the bishop of Rome, Pammachius and Quiritus both who served as Roman Senators, Ursula and Hippolitus are martyred.

The Eighth Persecution, under Decius, AD 249-251 – Fabianus the bishop of Rome, Alexander of Jerusalem, Nichomachus, Denisa, Julian, Trypho, Respicius, Agatha, Cyril the bishop of Gortyna, Babylas the bishop of Antioch, and Theodora are martyred. Origen the celebrated presbyter of Alexandria was tortured and imprisoned.

The Ninth Persecution, under Valerian, AD 257-260 – Rufina, Secunda, Stephen the bishop of Rome, Sixtus the bishop of Rome, Cyprian the bishop of Carthage was exiled and then later martyred, and Fructuosis bishop of Tarragon are martyred.

The Persecution of Christians by Diocletian

The Tenth Persecution, under Diocletian, AD 303-311 – the destruction of churches and the burning of Christian books, 1000’s of Christians were expelled from their homes and many were imprisoned, Sebastian, Romanus, Dorotheus, three sisters Agrape, Chionia, and Irene in Greece, Mauritius, and Alban are martyred.

Christian writers throughout the centuries of the Early Church responded to the persecution of Christians by the Romans by challenging their reasons and arguments. One of the most highly skilled defenders of Christianity was Tertullian (AD c.160-c.220). He chided the Romans in his book Apologia with these scathing words: “If the River Tiber reaches the walls, if the River Nile does not rise to the fields, if the sky does not move or if the earth does, if there is a famine, if there is a plague, the cry is at once: ‘The Christians to the lion!’ What, all of them to one lion?” Clearly, blaming Christians for all of the troubles experienced by the Romans was foolish and ridiculous. Tertullian pointed this out with bold and decisive logic. This line of reasoning, however, did not stop all forms of persecution and martyrdom. It was only in the ever-changing Roman political scene that this brutal policy finally came to an end.

In AD 313 the Edict of Milan finally brought an official end all of the persecution. J. D. Douglas notes, “Constantine and Licinius, meeting at Milan in January 313, redressed a two-century-old policy of the Roman government towards the Christian Church, so that Christians not only were free to worship as they wished, but were to receive compensation and return of confiscated property—in exchange for the divine favor of the state in its precarious hour.” (J. D. Douglas, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 659) In God’s providence the rising threats against the Roman Empire from the barbarians in the north and the east proved to be the driving force behind a change in policy. Rome needed to focus on external threats more than on internal threats.

Moreover, it must be noted that Constantine himself appeared to become a Christian in AD 312 at the battle of Milvian Bridge just outside of Rome. After being instructed by the Lord in a dream, he adopted the sign of the Labarum (Chi-Rho = Christ) for all of his soldiers. They fought under this banner and won a decisive victory. Thus any ongoing persecution against Christians would have been contrary to Constantine’s own faith. In the end, Jesus Christ received the glory as His spiritual kingdom continued to spread to every corner of the earth (See: Ps. 72:8; Matt. 16:18; Heb. 12:28-29).

Here are four resources that helped me to compile this article–all of them are winners!

Sources of Information:

Bettenson, Henry and Chris Maunder, eds. Documents of the Christian Church. Fourth Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.

Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

“Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
“Constantine the Great” by David F. Wright
“Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
“Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
“Milan, Edict of” by J. D. Douglas
“Persecution” by David F. Wells
“Pliny’s Letter to Trajan” by Peter Toon
“Rome” by Clyde Curry Smith

Eusebius Pamphilus. The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus. Grand Rapids, MI: Reprint, Baker Book House, 1992.

Foxe, Rev. John (1516-1587), Foxe’s Book of Martyrs, or formally known as Actes and Monumentes, (ed.) William Byron Forbrush, D.D., Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, originally published in English AD 1563, current copyright 1967.

Holmes, Michael W., ed. and trans. The Apostolic Fathers in English. Third Edition; after the earlier version of J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Richardson, Cyril C., ed. and trans. “Early Christian Fathers” in The Library of Christian Classics. Volume 1. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1953.

Schaaf, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Volume 2. Fifth Edition. Originally published in 1858. Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendricksen Publishers, 1996.

Walton, Robert C., Chronological & Background Charts of Church History, Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1986.

Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Bloomington, IN: Warhorn Media, Reprint, 2014.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

John Bunyan on the Christian Life

December 13, 2024 / marcusserven

“Come, pluck up, heart; let’s neither faint nor fear. Better, though difficult, the right way to go, Than wrong, though easy, where the end is woe.” ~John Bunyan from The Pilgrim’s Progress

John Bunyan was one of the more unusual figures to emerge during the English Reformation. He wasn’t formally trained in a University setting, nor did he pursue licensure and ordination through the Church of England. Yet, he had a profound and long-lasting ministry as a self-taught pastor. Given his independency, it is logical to place him amongst the English Puritans who separated themselves from the State Church. He is best known for his immensely popular allegory on the Christian life, A Pilgrim’s Progress. Outside of the Bible, this one volume has been reprinted more than any other book in the English language!

Throughout Bunyan’s life he endured lengthy times of incarceration in the Bedfordshire jail. He was arrested, charged, and imprisoned for simply serving as an “unregistered preacher” and a “religious enthusiast.” Oftentimes, the local magistrate would remind him that if he promised to no longer preach he would be freed that very day. Bunyan’s stout reply was always the same, “If you free me today, I shall surely preach tomorrow!”

John Bunyan writing *The Pilgrim’s Progress* while he languished in jail

Bunyan wrote many additional treatises on the Christian life and expositions on the books of the Bible. Here is a quote from Bunyan that I especially value, since it speaks of three significant doctrines: (1) the atoning work of Christ on the Cross (Eph. 1:7; 1 Jn. 1:7); (2) the intercessory prayers of Christ for his people (Rom. 8:34; Heb. 7:25, 9:24); (3) and the preserving power of Christ to protect his people through the many trials and tribulations of life (1 Tim. 2:5; 1 Jn. 2:1). Along these same lines Bunyan thoughtfully writes,

“God…will not lightly or easily lose His people. He has provided well for us: blood to wash us in; a Priest to pray for us, that we may be made to persevere; and, in case we foully fall, an Advocate to plead our case.”

— John Bunyan in The Golden Treasury of Puritan Quotations, edited by Dr. I. D. E. Thomas, page 282.

Let us all take great comfort in knowing that not only did Jesus Christ save us from the penalty of our sins, but he also keeps us safe through all of the difficulties and temptations of this present world. (See: 1 Cor. 10:13; James 1:2-4; 1 Pet. 1:3-5) In summary, we can rightly affirm–along with John Bunyan–that if Jesus Christ has done the greater thing of saving us while we were yet sinners, he will surely do the lesser thing of keeping us safe now that we are Christians. (See: John 10:27-29; Rom. 5:8-11; Phil. 1:6) We can be confident that he will do that very thing!

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Sources:

Bunyan, John. The Pilgrim’s Progress. Roger Pooley, ed. First Published in 1678; New York, NY: Penguin Books, Reprint, 2008.

Thomas, I. D. E. The Golden Treasury of Puritan Quotations. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1975.

Woodbridge, John D., gen. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

Tertullian: Defender of the Faith

November 22, 2024 / marcusserven

Sometimes religious debates can get out-of-control! Yet, we see Tertullian (sitting to the right) calmly making his case against the accusers of Christianity.

“See to it that no one takes you captive by philosophy and empty deceit, according to human tradition…and not according to Christ.” Col. 2:8

One of the stellar personalities of the Early Church, in my opinion, was Tertullian (AD c.160-c.215/220). As a young man growing up in Carthage, he received a superior education in rhetoric, literature, philosophy, Latin, and Greek. Once he became a Christian in his late thirties he put all of that knowledge to use in defending the faith. Over the years he wrote many treatises on a multitude of subjects–polemical, theological, and practical. But, at the center of his vast literary output was his zeal at rigorously challenging the opponents of Christianity. Here is an example of his skillful defense,

“He [Paul] has been at Athens and had in his interviews with its philosophers become acquainted with the human wisdom which pretends to know the truth. In fact it only corrupts it and is itself divided into its own multiple heresies by the variety of its mutually hostile sects. What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord is there between the Academy and the Church? What have heretics to do with Christians? Our instruction comes from the porch of Solomon, who himself taught that the Lord should be sought in simplicity of heart. Away with all attempts to produce a Stoic, Platonic and dialectic Christianity. We want no curious disputation after possessing Christ Jesus, no speculation after enjoying the gospel. With our faith we desire no further belief. For this is our prime belief: that there is nothing more that we should believe besides.”

— Tertullian, On the Prescription of Heretics, 7; quoted in Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, 16-17.

Consider Tertullian’s penetrating question–“What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” This is a core concept that all Christians must recognize. We should certainly be familiar with pagan ideas, but we should never embrace them alongside of our Christian convictions. Any attempt at religious syncretism leads to despair and destruction. Jesus said it best, “No one can serve two masters, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other” (Matt. 6:24). Therefore, you are either for Christ or against Him. Give this line of reasoning some careful thought and see if you agree with logic of Tertullian.

As one of the “heirs” of the Protestant Reformation who happily embraces the theology of Wycliffe, Huss, Luther, Zwingli, Tyndale, Calvin, and Knox, I could never imagine myself mixing the thoughts of Zeno, Plato, and Aristotle with my faith in Jesus Christ! Such a strange concoction would surely be an offense to God and harmful to me. Let me exhort you, then, to resolve never to incorporate philosophical speculation with your belief in Jesus Christ. After all, “What indeed does Athens have to do with Jerusalem?”

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Greg Bahnsen first introduced me to Tertullian along with Tim Dowley’s History of Christianity. Frame gives a helpful summary of Tertullian’s life and theology.

Resources for further Study:

Bahnsen, Greg L. Always Ready: Directions for Defending the Christian Faith. Robert R. Booth, ed. Atlanta, GA: American Vision and Texarkana, AR: Covenant Media Foundation, 1996.

Dowley, Tim, ed. The History of Christianity: A Lion Handbook. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishing, 1990.

Frame, John M. A History of Western Philosophy and Theology. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2015.

Greenslade, Stanley L., ed. Early Latin Theology: Selections From Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose and Jerome. Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1956.

Lane, Anthony. A Concise History of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

A Dramatic Example of God’s Providencial Will

November 4, 2024 / marcusserven

Mayflower II – Here is an immaculately detailed replica of the original ship that the Pilgrims traveled in across the Atlantic Ocean

“Whatever the LORD pleases He does, in heaven and in earth, in the seas and in all deep places.” Psalm 135:6

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

When you celebrate Thanksgiving day this year with your family, take time to reflect upon the many ways that the Lord preserved and protected the Pilgrims. One fine example of this is the life of John Howland (c.1592-1672). We don’t know all of the details of his life. We do, however, have a stirring testimony of how the Lord protected him when he fell off the deck of the Mayflower in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean! Here is William Bradford’s account of this dramatic example of God’s providence and the circumstances of his rescue:

Once, as they lay at hull in a terrible storm, a strong young man, called John Howland, coming on deck was thrown into the sea; but it pleased God that he caught hold of the top-sail halliards which hung overboard and ran out at length; but he kept his hold, though he was several fathoms under the water, till he was hauled up by the rope and then with a boat-hook helped into the ship and saved; and though he was somewhat ill from it he lived many years and became a profitable member both of the church and the commonwealth.

— William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Ch. IX, page 63

“John Howland Overboard” (a print by Mike Haywood): This picture certainly captures the high drama of being thrown off the ship in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean!

Without the intervention of the Lord, the life of John Howland surely would have ended that stormy day in the mid-Atlantic. But, the Lord did intervene and preserved his life! I am certain that dangerous event caused John Howland to reflect on his own mortality and how God spared him from a certain death. He probably also considered what the Lord would have him do with the rest of his life. Here are a few details about what he did over the years:

He served as the secretary to Gov. John Carver (who died in the sickness of 1621).
He was the 13th signer of the Mayflower Compact that brought law and order to Plymouth Colony.
He married Elizabeth Tilley (whose father and mother died in the sickness of 1621).
He and Elizabeth were blessed with ten children. Here are their names: Desire, John, Hope, Elizabeth, Lydia, Hannah, Joseph, Jabez, Ruth, and Isaac.
He became a prosperous businessman and landowner in Plymouth.
He oversaw the Kennebec River Trading station and promoted the fur trade with England.
He held several offices in Plymouth Colony throughout his life—a Freeman, Deputy to the General Court, Assistant Governor, and a Selectman of Plymouth Colony.
He was a faithful member of the church in Plymouth.

Finally, on his tombstone, surrounded by the graves of his many descendants, are the following words:

Here ended the Pilgrimage of

JOHN HOWLAND

who died February 23, 167_

aged above 80 years.

He married Elizabeth daughter of

JOHN TILLEY

who came with him in the

Mayflower Dec. 1620.

From them are descended a

numerous posterity

The life of John Howland is a wonderful example of God’s involvement in the lives of his people. The Bible teaches that the Lord providentially oversees and orders all of our actions (See: Gen. 50:20; Prov. 16:33; Matt. 10:30; Rom. 8:28). This fact can give us confidence in knowing that all the events of our life—both the good and bad—are used by God to accomplish his holy will. Life is full of challenges and difficulties, but as Christians we can know that the Lord is thoroughly involved in the details of our life. Let us trust Him in all that comes our way.

Here are three books on the Pilgrims that I have in my personal library–“The Landing of the Pilgrims” is especially good as an out-loud-reader for young children!

Sources:

Beale, David. The Mayflower Pilgrims: Roots of Puritan, Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Baptist Heritage. Greenville, SC: Ambassador-Emerald International, 2000.

Bradford, Wiliam. Of Plymouth Plantation: Bradford’s History of the Plymouth Settlement (1608-1650). Bulverde, TX: Vision Forum and Mantle Ministries, 1998.

Daugherty, James. The Landing of the Pilgrims. New York, NY: Landmark Books, 1950.

Gragg, Rod. The Pilgrim Chronicles: An Eyewitness History of the Pilgrims and the Founding of Plymouth Colony. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2014.

Willison, George F. Saints and Strangers. New York, NY: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1945.

Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

Ignatius of Antioch: Courageous Martyr of the Early Church

October 21, 2024 / marcusserven

“Indeed, all who desire to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will be persecuted.” 2 Tim. 3:12

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Ignatius (AD c.35-c.117) served the Lord as the bishop of Antioch in Syria. Not much is known of his early life. There is an ancient but unprovable tradition, however, that Ignatius was the child whom Jesus took up into his arms and said, “Truly, I say to you, unless you turn and become like children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven. Whoever humbles himself like this child is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven” (cf. Matt. 18:3-4). As a young Christian, Ignatius was discipled by the Apostle John through extensive correspondence. Because of this he quickly matured in his understanding of Christianity and became a highly capable church leader.

The church at Antioch of Syria became known as the first place where the disciples of Jesus were identified as “Christians” (Acts 11:26). It was also a significant launching place for Christian missionary endeavors. Paul and Barnabas were sent out by the church of Antioch on multiple missionary trips (Acts 13:1-3). When large numbers of Gentiles were converted, the church in Antioch welcomed them (Acts 15:30-32). Ignatius served as its bishop (Gk. episkopos), alongside of a council of elders (Gk. presbyterion), and the deacons (Gk. diakonia). As the bishop his spiritual influence appears to have far exceeded Antioch, so much so that he was recognized as a spiritual leader throughout the region of Syria and Asia Minor.

The ruins of the Antiochus Gate in Antioch of Syria. Perhaps, Paul and Barnabas walked through this gate at the beginning of their missionary journeys!

Ignatius is best known for seven letters that he wrote during the last year of his life. These letters are preserved in the writings of the “Apostolic Fathers” and they document his pending martyrdom as he was taken to Rome as a captive. In them Ignatius distinguished himself by writing against the Docetists who asserted that Jesus only appeared to have a real birth, death, and bodily resurrection. In essence, they denied the incarnation of Jesus Christ. Ignatius strongly argued that the Docetists (Gk: dokeo = to seem, to appear) were in error about Jesus Christ. He thoughtfully wrote,

Be deaf, therefore, whenever anyone speaks to you apart from Jesus Christ, who was of the family of David, who was the son of Mary; who really was born, who both ate and drank; who really was persecuted under Pontius Pilate, who really was crucified and died while those in heaven and on earth and under the earth looked on; who, moreover, really was raised from the dead when his Father raised him up. In the same way his Father will likewise also raise up in Christ Jesus us who believe in him. Apart from him we have no true life.

— “Ignatius to the Trallians” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 9

Hence, even at this early stage in the history of the Christian church, we see a fully formed doctrine of the humanity of Jesus Christ. Jesus did not just to appear to be a man, but he actually was a man. Over time, this contentious debate was finally resolved at the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) where Jesus Christ was acknowledged to be fully man and fully God at the same time, with the two natures united in one person (i.e. the hypostatic union).

As a determined apologist of Christian orthodoxy Ignatius demonstrated his zeal for defending the truth against all heretical teaching (Gk. hairesis = a choice, destructive opinion, sect or schismatic faction). Therefore, he also argued against the Ebionites who demanded the keeping of Jewish regulations as a way of salvation. Ignatius emphatically noted, “It is utterly absurd to profess Jesus Christ and to practice Judaism. For Christianity did not believe in Judaism, but Judaism in Christianity, in which every tongue believed and was brought together to God” (Ignatius to the Magnesians, Art. 10). In this, Ignatius mirrors the teaching of the Apostle Paul who wrote to the Colossian church, “Therefore let no one pass judgment on you in questions of food and drink, or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath. These are a shadow of the things to come, but the substance belongs to Christ” (Col. 2:16-17). Clearly, the Apostles’ doctrine was that the work of Jesus Christ on the cross was completely sufficient to justify and cleanse the sinner; nothing else was needed. Ignatius held to this same belief.

He also claimed to possess special gifts from the Holy Spirit by writing that he was “not lacking in any spiritual gift” (Ignatius to the Smynaeans, in the Salutation). Presumably, then, he prophesied, spoke in and interpreted “tongues” (Gk. glossolalia), and performed healings. As a result, some modern-day Pentecostals have claimed Ignatius as an early advocate of the “Spirit-filled” life. It is dubious, however, to make this claim when it is based only on one slender text (cited above). It is more likely that he manifested various spiritual gifts (i.e. the sign gifts), but that these ceased to exist as the Apostolic Age came to an end. See the Apostle Paul’s statement for context, “As for prophecies, they will pass away; as for tongues they will cease; as for knowledge, it will pass away. For we know in part and we prophesy in part, but when the perfect comes [i.e. the New Testament Scriptures], the partial will pass away” (1 Cor. 13:8-10).

In his seven letters Ignatius quoted from three Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) and several of the New Testament Epistles (like the example above from Romans). This fact shows how the NT Canon was already widely recognized at the end of the Apostolic Age.

Ignatius is best known by Christians throughout the centuries as a martyr (Gk. marturion = a witness, testimony, evidence). On his way to Rome to suffer martyrdom under armed guard he wrote letters to the Christians in the cities through which he passed (Philadelphia and Smyrna), to cities that sent out delegations to meet him (Ephesus, Tralles, and Magnesia), to Rome (sent ahead of his arrival), and finally to Polycarp (the bishop of Smyrna). These seven letters contain a strong and passionate declaration of the gospel of Jesus Christ; urging his fellow Christians to “stand firm” and to seek lives of holiness. Note this entry To the Ephesians on the subject of humility. He writes,

I am not commanding you, as though I were someone important. For even though I am in chains for the sake of the Name, I have not yet been perfected in Jesus Christ. For now I am only beginning to be a disciple, and I speak to you as my fellow students. For I need to be trained by you in faith, instruction, endurance, and patience. But since love does not allow me to be silent concerning you, I have therefore taken the initiative to encourage you, so that you may run together in harmony with the mind of God. For Jesus Christ, our inseparable life, is the mind of the Father, just as the bishops appointed throughout the world are in the mind of Christ.

— “Ignatius to the Ephesians” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 3

These letters show that the episcopal form of church government was beginning to take a strong hold in Syria and Asia Minor as the preferred structure of ecclesiastical authority. It is telling that each one of the major churches that Ignatius sent letters to were ruled over by a bishop (Gk: episkopos). Concerning the structure of church government—bishops, presbyters, and deacons—Ignatius exhorts,

Flee from division as the beginning of evils. You must all follow the bishop as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and follow the council of presbyters as you would the apostles; respect the deacons as the commandment of God. Let no one do anything that has to do with the church without the bishop. Only that Eucharist which is under the authority of the bishop (or whomever he himself designates) is to be considered valid. Wherever the bishop appears, there let the congregation be; just as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the catholic church. It is not permissible either to baptize or to hold a love feast without the bishop. But whatever he approves is also pleasing to God, in order that everything you do may be trustworthy and valid.

— “Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 8

In addition, it was Ignatius who first used the word “catholic” (i.e., “universal”) to describe the interrelationship between the churches scattered throughout the Roman world (See: Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Art. 8). In this sense, Ignatius emphasized the fact that the churches were not completely independent from one another, but they were inter-connected. The best evidence for this connection between them was the way in which all of the churches adhered to the ruling of the Jerusalem Council regarding the inclusion of Gentiles into the church (Acts 15:1-21).

Moreover, Ignatius seems convinced that the return of Jesus Christ was imminent. Given the rising persecution against the disciples of Jesus Christ, he can certainly not be faulted for this expectation and hope. He boldly writes,

These are the last times. Therefore let us be reverent, let us fear the patience of God, lest it become a judgment against us. For let us either fear the wrath to come or love the grace which is present, one of the two; only let us be found in Christ Jesus, which leads to true life. Let nothing appeal to you apart from him, in whom I carry around these chains (my spiritual pearls!), by which I hope, through your prayers, to rise again. May I always share in them, in order that I might be found in the company of the Christians of Ephesus who have always been in agreement with the apostles, by the power of Jesus Christ.

— “Ignatius to the Ephesians” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 11

Even though Jesus Christ did not return within the life of Ignatius, his strong faith and resilient attitude prevailed in the end. Ignatius expected to be in the presence of his Lord, Jesus Christ, immediately following his death. This was not a vain hope, but one built upon the promise of Jesus—“Let not your hearts be troubled. Believe in God, believe also in me. In my Father’s house are many rooms…I will come again and will take you to myself, that where I am you may be also” (John 14:1-3).

When the Roman Emperor Trajan, who ruled from AD 98-117, visited Antioch he desired to see its most famous citizen, Ignatius. This was not a friendly visit and the Emperor Trajan greeted him in the following manner:

Trajan: “There you are, wicked devil, deceiver of men!”

Ignatius: “‘Not an evil spirit,’ but I have Jesus in my heart.”

Trajan: “Jesus Christ within you? Do you mean him who was crucified by Pontius Pilate?”

Ignatius: “Yes, he was crucified for my sins.”

Without a trial of any kind the heartless Emperor Trajan ordered that Ignatius be taken to Rome and be thrown to the wild beasts. He was to be, “butchered to make a Roman holiday.” It was on his way to Rome that Ignatius penned his famous letters to individual churches and to Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna. Knowing that he would soon be martyred, Ignatius wrote the following words,

I am writing to all the churches and am insisting to everyone that I die for God of my own free will—unless you hinder me. I implore you: do not be unseasonably kind to me. Let me be food for the wild beasts, through whom I can reach God. I am God’s wheat, and I am being ground by the teeth of wild beasts, so that I may prove to be pure bread. Better yet, coax the wild beasts, so that they may become my tomb and leave nothing of my body behind, lest I become a burden to anyone once I have fallen asleep. Then I will truly be a disciple of Jesus Christ, when the world will no longer see my body. Pray to the Lord on my behalf, so that through these instruments I may prove to be a sacrifice to God. I do not give you orders like Peter and Paul: they were apostles, I am a convict; they were free, but I am even now still a slave. But if I suffer, I will be a freedman of Jesus Christ and will rise up free in him. In the meantime, as a prisoner I am learning to desire nothing.

— “Ignatius to the Romans” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 4

A visitor to the Colosseum once asked, “Are there any relics still to be obtained?” The guide replied, “Gather the dust from the floor of the Colosseum; it is all the martyrs.”

Many weeks later when Ignatius finally arrived in Rome, the Emperor Trajan sentenced him to death. Ignatius replied by looking up to heaven and uttering these words, “I thank thee, O Lord, that thou hast vouchsafed thus to honor me” and later while facing the lions he stated, “I am God’s grain, to be ground between the teeth of wild beasts, so that I may become a holy loaf for the Lord.” Soon after this all that was left of Ignatius was a few gnawed bones. When his friends recovered his remains they knew that Ignatius was “with Christ, which is far better” (Phil. 1:23). One hundred and twenty years later, Tertullian (AD c.160-220), the Latin Church Father, rightly affirmed, “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.” The testimony of Ignatius, and many other martyrs of the Early Church, serve as sober reminders to modern-day Christians that the secular authorities can turn against the members of Christ’s Church. The Apostle Paul emphatically noted, “Indeed, all who desire to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will be persecuted” (2 Tim. 3:12). Let us, then, be watchful, and let us prepare ourselves for what trials and tribulations may come in the providential will of God.

These three books first introduced me to the treasures of Ignatius–all are winners!

Sources for Further Study:

Abott-Smith, G. A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament. Third Edition. Edinburgh, Scotland, T. & T. Clark, 1981.

Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.

Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

“Antioch (Syrian)” by James M. Houston
“Apostolic Fathers” by David F. Wright
“Apostolic Succession” by R. E. Nixon
“Bishop” by Peter Toon
“Chalcedon, Definition of” by G. T. D. Angel
“Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
“Deacon” by J. W. Charley
“Docetism” by G. W. Grogan
“Ebonites” by H. L. Ellison
“Eusebius of Caesarea” by J. G. G. Norman
“Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
“Ignatius” by David F. Wright
“Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
“Persecution” by David F. Wells
“Polycarp” by David F. Wright
“Presbyter” by W. Stanford Reid
“Rome” by Clyde Curry Smith
“Tertullian” by David F. Wright

Dowley, Tim, ed. The Lion Handbook of the History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishing, 1990.

Eusebius Pamphilus. The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus. Grand Rapids, MI: Reprint, Baker Book House, 1992.

Holmes, Michael W., ed. and trans. The Apostolic Fathers in English. Third Edition; after the earlier version of J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Leith, John H., ed. Creeds of the Churches. Third Edition. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1982.

Richardson, Cyril C. Early Christian Fathers. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1970.

Schaaf, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Volume 2. Fifth Edition. Originally published in 1858. Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendricksen Publishers, 1996.

Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

“Ignatius of Antioch” by Edwin M. Yamauchi
“John and the End of the Apostolic Age” by Leon Morris
“Paul and the Missionary Enterprise” by F. F. Bruce

Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Bloomington, IN: Warhorn Media, Reprint, 2014.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

Introduction:

Setting the Stage: Why was the Reformation necessary?

Martin Luther (1483-1546) and the German Reformation:

William Tyndale (c.1494–1536) and the English Reformation:

John Calvin (1509-1564) and the Swiss Reformation:

John Knox (c.1514-1572) and the Scottish Reformation:

The Westminster Assembly (1643–1648):

If you would like to know more about…

Resources for Further Study:

Introduction:

A Glossary of Key Words:

The Ancient Heretics and Sectarians:

Resources for Further Study:

Resources for Further Study:

Introduction:

The Bible’s Testimony About Itself:

By Scripture Alone:

Views on the Inspiration of Scripture:

Three Key Passages:

The Authority of the Bible:

Inerrancy, Infallibility, and Perspicuity:

Conclusion:

Resources for Further Study:

Sources of Information:

Resources for further Study:

Sources for Further Study:

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