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Rev. Jonathan Edwards: America’s Greatest Evangelical Theologian

December 9, 2020 /
1st Congregational Church in Northampton, MA

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven:

Rev. Jonathan Edwards

Moving day, during the hot Summer of 1751, was a subdued experience for the family of America’s foremost theologian Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758). Reluctantly, he and his burgeoning family were relocating from their beloved home in Northampton, Massachusetts, to begin a new life and ministry amongst the Indians on the frontier. After their bags were packed and the wagons fully loaded the entire entourage set off down the long dusty road to Stockbridge, Massachusetts—never to return to the pristine village that had been their home for 23 years. Leaving Northampton was difficult for many reasons: it was here that Jonathan had begun his full-time Christian ministry under the watchful training of his maternal Grandfather, Rev. Solomon Stoddard; it was in this very city that the initial stirrings of the “First Great Awakening” began (1735-1740); and it was here that Jonathan and Sarah had birthed and raised their twelve children. Yet, many of the townspeople wanted Jonathan Edwards and his family to leave—why would they be sending away one of the greatest theologians that America had yet produced? In order to thoroughly answer this question some of the background of Jonathan Edwards must be examined.

Jonathan Edwards was born in the country village of East Windsor, Connecticut, on October 5, 1703. He was the son of a Congregational minister, Rev. Timothy Edwards, and his mother Esther Stoddard. His parents educated him at home along with his ten sisters. Young Jonathan’s interests knew no bounds as he vigorously examined the realms of literature, physical science, philosophy, and biblical studies writing several insightful compositions in each field. In many respects, he was a childhood prodigy who eventually excelled in Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. At age 13 he was encouraged to attend the Collegiate School of Connecticut (which later became Yale University), and he graduated at age 17 in 1720 with an A.B. degree. About this same time he read 1 Timothy 1:17, “Now to the King eternal, immortal, invisible, the only God, be honor and glory forever and ever. Amen.”, and had an “evangelical awakening” which fulfilled his own deep-seated spiritual longing. Upon reflection he wrote in his journal,

“As I read the words, there came into my soul, and was as it were diffused through it, a sense of the glory of the Divine Being; a new sense, quite different from any thing I ever experienced before…from about that time, I began to have a new kind of apprehensions and ideas of Christ, and the work of redemption, and the glorious way of salvation by him. An inward, sweet sense of these things, at times, came into my heart; and my soul was led away in pleasant views and contemplations of them. And my mind was greatly engaged to spend my time in reading and meditation on Christ, on the beauty and excellency of his person, and the lovely way of salvation by free grace in him.”

Winslow, ed., “Jonathan Edwards: Basic Writings,” 83-84

This personal commitment to Christ started him on a life-time quest of thinking and writing about “true religion.” His desire to further study the Bible and philosophy was so great that he stayed at Yale College for two years of additional study. While there he was contacted to serve as a “student supply” Pastor at a Scottish Presbyterian Church in New York City; which he did for six months further confirming his call to the Christian ministry. After receiving his M.A. degree in 1723 he was hired a short time later to serve as a tutor at Yale.

Academic studies, though, were not his exclusive interest while in New Haven for he became distracted by a young lady in a prominent family—Miss Sarah Pierpont. Early on in their relationship he described 13 year old Sarah on the inside cover of his Greek Grammar with these words,

“…They say there is a lady in (New Haven) who is beloved of the Great Being, who made and rules the world, and there are certain seasons in which this Great Being, in some way or other invisible, comes to her and fills her mind with exceeding sweet delight, and that she hardly cares for any thing, except to meditate on him—that she expects after a while to be received up where he is, to be raised up out of the world and caught up into heaven; being assured that he loves her too well to let her remain at a distance from him always…She has a strange sweetness in her mind, and singular purity in her affections; is most just and conscientious in all her conduct; and you could not persuade her to do any thing wrong or sinful, if you would give her all the world, lest she would offend this Great Being. She is of a wonderful sweetness, calmness and universal benevolence of mind; especially after this Great God has manifested himself to her mind. She will sometimes go about from place to place, singing sweetly; and seems to be always full of joy and pleasure; and no one knows for what. She loves to be alone, walking in the fields and groves, and seems to have some one invisible always conversing with her…”

Winslow, ed., Jonathan Edwards: Basic Writings, 66-67
Sarah Edwards

Prior to the making of any formal plans for marriage with Sarah, Jonathan knew that he would have to provide for his new family and so he gladly received a call to be the Assistant Pastor of his grandfather’s church in Northampton, Massachusetts. This was the largest Congregational Church west of Boston, with 600 members, and it was here that he was ordained to the gospel ministry in 1726. Still much smitten with Sarah Pierpont they married in 1728 and she became his life’s partner for the next 31 years. Many years later near the end of his earthly life, Jonathan Edwards wrote a oft-quoted letter to his wife giving thanks to God for the “uncommon union” that they enjoyed through out the many years of married life. Together they raised twelve children and persevered through all of the challenges of pastoral ministry. The Lord blessed them with a large godly posterity and a much appreciated spiritual legacy.

Rev. Soloman Stoddard

In 1729 Jonathan assumed the role of Senior Pastor when his grandfather, Rev. Solomon Stoddard, retired from his pastoral charge. During his Northampton ministry, besides preaching and catechizing the children, he strongly promoted evangelical revival. Many of the townspeople had been raised by Christian parents, but they had drifted from the Puritan beliefs of their forefathers and no longer had a hunger for the knowledge of God. Jonathan’s prayers were sovereignly answered by God and revival broke out in Northampton during 1734-1737. On one eventful Sunday over one hundred new converts were received into Church membership. He called this period of awakening “the work of God,” for Edwards did not see this as a passing excitement nor something brought about through the efforts of man—it was an outpouring of God’s divine Spirit regenerating hardened human hearts. Other occurrences of revival also began to sweep through the American Colonies. Both George Whitefield (an English evangelist) and Gilbert Tennant (a Presbyterian Pastor) were used mightily of God in furthering the awakening all along the Eastern seaboard, but it was Jonathan Edwards who became known as the leading spokesmen and defender of this spiritual awakening. The return to historic Christianity that God had instigated among the American Colonists would become in time the spiritual foundation for the American War for Independence in the 1770’s.

Throughout Edwards’s ministry he defended a warm-hearted evangelical Calvinism that emphasized the sovereignty of God over all human events. He firmly resisted the attacks against the Great Awakening by the Unitarians, Deists, and skeptics. Edwards also wrote many notable books on the revival such as: A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God (1737), Some Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival (1741), and A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections (1746). Edwards wrote,

“As in worldly things worldly affections are very much the spring of men’s motion and action; so in religious matters the spring of their actions is very much religious affections. He that has doctrinal knowledge and speculation only, without affection, never is engaged in the business of religion. Nothing is more manifest in fact, than that the things of religion take hold of men’s souls no further than they affect them…I am bold to assert that there never was any considerable change wrought in the mind or conversation of any person, by anything of a religious nature that ever he read, heard or saw, who had not his affections moved…In a word, there never was anything considerable brought to pass in the heart of life of any man living, by the things of religion, that has not his heart deeply affected by those things.”

Edwards, “Religious Affections,” quoted by Lane, in “A Concise Dictionary of Christian Thought,” 188

These scholarly works provided a biblical and theological framework for the Great Awakening. He is probably best known for his sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741), which although read in a monotone voice produced anguished cries of repentance in his listeners. Here is one small section which equally features the holy wrath and divine grace of God,

“The God that holds you over the pit of hell, much as one holds a spider or some loathsome insect over the fire, abhors you and is dreadfully provoked. His wrath towards you burns like fire; he looks upon you as worthy of nothing else, but to be cast into the fire; he is of purer eyes than to bear to have you in his sight; you are ten thousand times more abominable in his eyes than the most hateful venomous serpent is in ours. You have offended him infinitely more than ever a stubborn rebel did his prince—and yet it is nothing but his hand that holds you from falling into the fire every moment.”

Edwards, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” quoted by Lane, in “A Concise Dictionary of Christian Thought,” 187)

One of the heated controversies ignited by Edwards while serving in Northampton surrounded the qualifications for receiving the Lord’s Supper. Rev. Solomon Stoddard, Jonathan Edwards’s grandfather, adopted the provisions of the “Half-way Covenant” (1662) within his congregation. It states,

“The children of Church members are members of the Church as well as their parents, and do not cease to be members by becoming adult, but do still continue in the Church, until in some way of God they be cast out; and…they are subject to Church-discipline, even as other members, and may have their children baptized before themselves be received to the Lord’s Supper; and yet that in this way there is no tendency to the corrupting of the Church by unworthy members, or of the Ordinances by unworthy partakers.”

“The Half-Way Covenant,” 1662; quoted in “Eerdman’s Handbook to Christianity in America,” 41)

This ecclesiastical agreement allowed unconverted baptized members to take the Lord’s Supper based on the profession of faith of their parents. Edwards argued that the Lord’s Supper was not a “converting ordinance” and that only professing Christians should partake of it. Open conflict erupted on all sides. Because of his opposition to the “Half-way Covenant” Edwards was forced out of the church in Northampton and eventually became a pastor to a small frontier congregation of settlers and Indians in Stockbridge, Massachusetts (1750). Some grieved the loss of Jonathan Edwards, while on the other hand many rejoiced to see him depart Northampton. Little did they know that they had rejected the greatest theological mind in America at that time.

Although physically arduous, the seven years in Stockbridge proved to be a fruitful period of reflection and writing for Edwards. He finished his definitive defense against an encroaching Arminianism, The Freedom of the Will (1750), where he shows the futility of the belief that man “cooperates” with God in the matter of salvation. The “New Birth,” he asserted, comes about solely by God’s gracious activity in the life of one who is spiritually dead. He also wrote a brilliant exposition entitled “The Great Christian Doctrine of Original Sin” (1758) challenging the popular notion that man is inherently good.

Nassau Hall at Princeton University completed in 1758

The reputation of Jonathan Edwards grew rapidly during these years of relative exile in Stockbridge. In 1757 Edwards was approached to become the President of the College of New Jersey (later to become Princeton University and Seminary). In January 1758 Edwards moved to Princeton, but the town was in the throes of a smallpox epidemic and so he received an inoculation as an example to his students. Disastrous consequences resulted and he died of a secondary infection in March 1758. Thus passed from the scene a truly great man of God who not only positively influenced his family, but who also shaped the thinking of many generations of Christians.

An Addendum:

Jonathan and Sarah Edward’s grave in the Old Cemetery in Princeton, New Jersey

On April 8, 2013 my family and I stood before the graves of Jonathan and Sarah Edwards. They are both buried together in the Old Cemetery at Princeton, New Jersey. Here is the legacy of an “uncommon union” between a husband and wife who were married for thirty-one years. Their marriage is a testimony of how two individuals, who though very different from each other, were able with God’s help to weave their lives together into an unbreakable bond. Even though they died apart from one another they exemplify a couple whom God blessed even in their deaths. For that reason they are buried together in a unified grave. Soli Deo Gloria

—Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Sources for Further Study: 

Ahlstrom, Sydney E. A Religious History of the American People. 2 Volumes. Garden City, NY: Image Books, 1975.

Dodds, Elisabeth D. Marriage to a Difficult Man: the “Uncommon Union” of Jonathan and Sarah Edwards. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1971.

Edwards, Jonathan. The True Believer: The Marks and Benefits of True Faith. Don Kistler, ed. Morgan, PA: Soli Deo Gloria Publications, 2001.

Edwards, Jonathan. The Works of Jonathan Edwards. 2 Volumes. Edinburgh, Scotland: Banner of Truth Publishers, Reprint, 1975.

Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1984.

  • “Halfway Covenant”, by Mark A. Noll
  • “Jonathan Edwards”, by Mark A. Noll
  • “New England Theology”, by Mark A. Noll
  • “New Light Schism”, by W. A. Hoffecker
  • “Old School Theology”, by W. A. Hoffecker
  • “Revivalism”, by M. E. Dieter
  • “The Great Awakenings”, by Mark A. Noll

Gerstner, Edna. Jonathan and Sarah: An Uncommon Union. Morgan, PA: Soli Deo Gloria Publications, 1995.

Gerstner, John H. Jonathan Edwards: A Mini-Theology. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1987.

Haykin, Michael A. G. A Sweet Flame: Piety in the Letters of Jonathan Edwards. Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2007.

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Lane, Tony. A Concise Dictionary of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

Lawson, Steven J. The Unwavering Resolve of Jonathan Edwards. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2008.

Lovelace, Richard F. Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1979.

Marshall, Peter, and David Manuel. The Light and The Glory. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1977.

Murray, Iain H. Jonathan Edwards: A New Biography. Carlisle, PA: Banner of Truth Publishers, 1987.

Noll, Mark A. A History of Christianity in the United States. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman’s Publishing House, 1992.

Noll, Mark A., Nathan O. Hatch, George M. Marsden, David F. Wells, John D. Woodbridge, eds. Eerdman’s Handbook to Christianity in America. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman’s Publishing House, 1983.

Reid, Daniel G., Robert D. Linder, Bruce L. Shelly, Harry S. Stout, eds. Dictionary of Christianity in America. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990.

Sparks, Jared, ed. Lives of Jonathan Edwards and David Brainerd. In The Library of American Biography. Volume VIII. Boston: Hilliard, Gray, and Company, 1837.

  • Samuel Miller, “Life of Jonathan Edwards”
  • William B. O. Peabody, “Life of David Brainerd”

Tracy, Joseph. The Great Awakening. First published in 1842; Reprint, Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1976.

Winslow, Ola Elizabeth, ed. Jonathan Edwards: Basic Writings. New York, NY: Penguin Publishing Group, 1966.

Woodbridge, John D., ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

Dr. Marcus Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright August, 2013 – All Rights Reserved.

A Remarkable Example of God’s Providential Care

December 5, 2020 /
Rev. David Brainerd

It is clear when you read the writings of Rev. David Brainerd (1718-1747) that he firmly believed in the providence of God. In brief, it can be stated that he affirmed that God was involved in the affairs of men. God’s “invisible hand” directed Brainerd in a multitude of personal decisions that were necessary to carry out his missionary work with the American indians. When difficult circumstances arose, and they did many times over, he trusted that God was superintending all of the events of his life and that in the end these trials would prove to be for his own benefit, or for the benefit of others. This aspect of Brainerd’s faith gave him a deep personal assurance and a firm resolute confidence. Consider now this gripping example of God’s providential care in David Brainerd’s life:

“Tomahawks in hand, the Indians crept toward the strange tent. As they cautiously peered under the flap, their intention to kill was forgotten. There, in the center of the tent was a man on his knees. As he prayed, a rattlesnake crossed his feet and paused in a position to strike. But the snake did not strike. It lowered its head again and glided out of the tent. It was a long time later when David Brainerd, the man in the tent, found out why the Indians at the village received him with such honor as they did. He had expected that they would want to kill him. The reason for their change of heart was the report their comrades had brought of the marvelous thing they had seen. The Indians looked upon David Brainerd as a messenger from the Great Spirit, which indeed he was. In all good work the protection of God is with the worker.”

Tan, Paul Lee. “Encyclopedia of 7700 Illustrations: Signs of the Times.” Rockville, MD: Assurance Publishers, 1979, #2031

The historic Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) defines the doctrine of “Providence” in the following manner: “God the great Creator of all things doth uphold, direct, dispose, and govern all creatures, actions, and things, from the greatest even to the least, by His most wise and holy providence, according to His infallible foreknowledge, and the free and immutable counsel of His own will to the praise of the glory of His wisdom, power, justice, goodness, and mercy.” (WCF, Chapter 5, Article 1) David Brainerd was well-acquainted with these words since he had memorized them as a child. In short, he trusted God to “uphold, direct, dispose, and govern” all the circumstances of his life. And the Lord, did not let him down.

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

David Brainerd: Pioneering Missionary to the American Indians

December 5, 2020 /

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him who brings good news, who publishes peace, who brings good news of happiness, who publishes salvation, and says to Zion, ‘Your God reigns!’ ” Isaiah 52:7

Brainerd’s Journal and Diary

At this time of accelerating interest in Christian missions, it is prudent for Christians everywhere to remember the life, work, and words of a sincere and diligent missionary to the American Indians. The Rev. David Brainerd (1718-1747) lived as a minister of the gospel amongst the Indians for five years until he was overtaken by the ravages of tuberculosis. During that time he conducted lengthy preaching missions with the Indians in places such as Kaunaumeek, at the forks of the Delaware River, the Susquehanah valley, Crossweeksung, and Cranbury. He preached the gospel to thousands of Indians in a time of spiritual “Awakening” throughout New England, and wondrously saw God open the hearts of hundreds. Brainerd went head to head with the pagan religion of the Indians, and saw it for what it actually was—the worship of evil spirits, superstitious slavery to local Shamans, and cruel and unkind treatment of women, children, the aged, and captives. In his Journal and personal Diary he chronicles numerous events which showed the American Indians to be illiterate and without any spiritual hope. Nevertheless, he loved the Indians as those who needed to gain the assurance of eternal life. He did not seek to change their cultural practices, except where these were expressly forbidden in the pages of the Bible. Moreover, he sought to encourage literacy and contemporary practices of farming among them. David Brainerd has become a model of the effective and dedicated missionary for our age and in the past. Let us review the specific events of his short, but energetic, life.

David Brainerd

David Brainerd was born on April 20, 1718 at Haddam, Connecticut the third son of his father (Worshipful Hezekiah Brainerd) and his mother (Dorothy Hobart Brainerd). David came from a family background of lawyers on his father’s side and of ministers on his mother’s side. He grew up in a large rollicking family of nine children, five boys and four girls. His father unexpectedly died when he was nine years old, and he was left a complete orphan by age fourteen upon his mother’s untimely death. It seemed certain that he was destined to become a Connecticut farmer working the land that he had inherited from his parents while taking care of his younger siblings. It was during these teenage years that Brainerd became increasingly interested in Christianity. He wrongly thought that by performing “deeds of religion” God would find favor in him. He transparently wrote about this period,

When about twenty years of age, I applied myself to study and was now more engaged than ever in the duties of religion. I became very watchful over my thoughts, words, and actions; and thought I must be sober indeed, because I designed to devote myself to the ministry; and imagined I did dedicate myself to the Lord…My manner of life was now exceedingly regular and full of religion, such as it was; for I read my Bible more than twice through in less than a year, spent much time every day in prayer and other secret duties, gave great attention to the Word preached, and endeavored to my utmost to retain it. So much was I concerned about religion that I agreed with some young persons to meet privately on Sabbath evenings for religious exercises, and thought myself sincere in these duties…In short I had a very good outside, though not sensible of it.

Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, 58-59.

Fortunately, God broke into the midst of his erroneous way of thinking and he was profoundly converted in 1739. It was by the mercy of God and the abandonment of “works righteousness” that his heart was opened to the transforming wonders of the “new birth.” He subsequently entered Yale College to pursue ministerial preparation and theological studies. In this erudite institution he excelled as a student relishing in his studies of theology and the Bible. As in many people’s life, there can often be a “defining moment” that shapes that person’s attitudes in a negative way or a positive way—in 1742 such an event happened to Brainerd. His biographer, Jonathan Edwards, explains what occurred,

And it once happened that he and two or three…intimate friends were in the hall together, after Mr. Whittelsey, one of the tutors, had been to prayer there with the scholars; no other person now remaining in the hall but Brainerd and his companions. Mr. Whittelsey having been unusually pathetical in his prayer, one of Brainerd’s friends on this occasion asked him what he thought of Mr. Whittelsey; he made the answer, “He has no more grace than this chair.” One of the freshmen happening at this time to be near the hall (though not in the room) overheard those words. This person, though he heard no name mentioned and knew not who was thus censured, informed a certain woman in the town, withal telling her of his own suspicion, namely that he believed Brainerd said this of someone or other of the rulers of the college. Whereupon she went and informed the Rector, who sent for this freshmen and examined him. He told the Rector the words he heard Brainerd utter and informed him who were in the room at that time. Upon which the Rector sent for them: they were very backward to inform against their friend what they looked upon as a private conversation, and especially as none but they had heard or knew of whom he had uttered those words; yet the rector compelled them to declare what he had said, and of whom he had said it…for these things he was expelled from the college.

Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, Appendix 1, 381-382.
Rev. Gilbert Tennant

Although Brainerd could have harbored ill feelings toward the Rector and the College, and allowed his frequent melancholy spirit to dominate him with sorrow, he did not.  Instead, he saw these events as the divine providence of God and as a means of humbling him for future service to God’s kingdom. In addition, as a leader amongst the students Brainerd was heavily criticized for his attendance at a nearby revival meeting where the fiery Presbyterian preacher the Rev. Gilbert Tennant (1703-1764) was speaking. Rev. Tennant had become famous by his sermon “The Dangers of an Unconverted Ministry.” In this message he criticized the New England clergy for their uniform lack of evidence of regeneration. Such animosity was generated by Tennant’s sermon, which had been widely published, that the Rector at Yale had forbidden the students to attend any meetings where he was speaking. Brainerd, out of curiousity, attended a meeting and when this became known Brainerd was unable to assuage the authorities—their minds were made up to make an example of him for the rest of the students. As a result, he never graduated although he stood first in his class at the time of his expulsion. 

A few years later, Brainerd actually attended Commencement Day proceedings at Yale College when he would have graduated. At the urging of others he submitted a public confession and apology to the directors of the college. They voted to readmit Brainerd so that he could continue his studies, but since he was then deeply engaged in his ministry to the Indians he reluctantly declined. For him what could have been an extremely bitter experience, was used by the Lord to further refine his character and prepare him for the hardships of missionary service. Here was a man who was willing to go and do exactly what God required of him, no matter what the personal sacrifice.

Brainerd pursued private studies in divinity through several ministers and in short order received his License to preach. Although he had several invitations to preach in established settlements and towns he felt sure that God had called him to spread the gospel to the Indians. Thus, in November of 1742 he was commissioned as a missionary of the “Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge” (also known as the S.P.C.K.). This organization had been founded in 1709 to encourage missionary work amongst American Indians. He began a permanent work near Stockbridge, Massachusetts among the Indians and settlers. His daily Diary reads not as an adventure story, living in the wilderness in the midst of heathen savages, but as a sober chronicle of preaching to a people that he truly came to love as his brothers. Here is a revealing entry from his Diary,

I live in the most lonesome wilderness; have but one single person to converse with, that can speak English (the Indian who served as Brainerd’s interpreter, Wauwaumpequunnaunt). Most of the talk I hear is either Highland Scotch or Indian. I have not a fellow Christian to whom I might unbosom myself or lay open my spiritual sorrows; with whom I might take sweet counsel in conversation about heavenly things and join in social prayer. I live poorly with regard to the comforts of this life. Most of my diet consists of boiled corn, hasty-pudding, etc. I lodge on a bundle of straw, my labor is hard and extremely difficult, and I have little appearance of success, to comfort me. The Indians have no land to live on but what the Dutch people lay claim to; and these threaten to drive them off. They have no regard for the souls of the poor Indians; and by what I can learn, they hate me because I come to preach to them. But what makes all my difficulties grievous to be borne is that God hides His face from me.

Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, 124.
Rev. George Whitefield

During the years that David Brainerd was laboring in the wilderness, the preaching of the itinerant Anglican evangelist, Rev. George Whitefield (1714-1770), was being mightily used by God to further revival in America. Those who favored the Great Awakening were referred to as the “New Lights” or the “New Side Presbyterians.”  Although, Brainerd was congregational in his understanding of church polity, he did have an appreciation for the work of God’s Spirit in the revival and strongly identified with the “New Lights.” He felt that New England was being drenched by “showers of God’s Grace” through the preachers of the Awakening. Essentially, “New Light” theology was a warm-spirited evangelical Calvinism which emphasized man’s complete inability to respond to the offer of the gospel. Salvation was seen as completely of God’s grace, without a shred of human cooperation. This became the studied view and firm belief of David Brainerd. Over the five years of missionary service he labored at several locations in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. In June 1744 he was ordained by the Presbytery of Newark, New Jersey. By November 1745 he had ridden over 3,000 miles on horseback throughout the American wilderness. A typical entry in his Diary reads like this,

Lord’s Day, April 10. Rose early in the morning and walked out and spent a considerable time in the woods, in prayer and meditation. Preached to the Indians, both forenoon and afternoon. They behaved soberly in general; two or three in particular appeared under some religious concern, with whom I conversed privately. One told me her heart had cried ever since she heard me preach first.

Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, 120.
David Brainerd in the saddle

During the final two years of his ministry in the forests of New Jersey he saw “a remarkable work of grace” with the conversion of more than one hundred and thirty Indians. He baptized thirty-eight Indians and formed churches at Crossweeksung, and Cranbury. He lovingly referred to the Indians in these congregations as “my people.” Brainerd’s general pattern of ministry consisted of daily preaching, frequent spiritual counseling, and evening catechism. This revival was thoroughly described in his Journal which was published in 1746. Consider this entry from that year,

Lord’s Day, December 29.  Preached from John 3:1-5. A number of white people were present, as is usual upon the Sabbath. The discourse was accompanied with power, and seemed to have a silent, but deep piercing influence upon the audience. Many wept and sobbed affectionately. There were some tears among the white people, as well as the Indians. Some could not refrain from crying out, though there were not so many exercised, but the impressions made upon their hearts appeared chiefly by extraordinary earnestness of their attention, and their heavy sighs and tears. After public worship was over, I went to my house, proposing to preach again after a short season of intermission. But they soon came in one after another, with tears in their eyes, to  know “what they should do to be saved.” The Divine Spirit in such a manner set home upon their hearts what I spoke to them that the house was soon filled with cries and groans. They all flocked together upon this occasion, and those whom I had reason to think in a Christless state were almost universally seized with concern for their souls. It was an amazing season of power among them, and seemed as if God “had bowed the heavens, and come down.”

Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, 265.
Rev. Jonathan Edwards

It was in April of 1747 he had a serious bout with the tuberculosis from which he had suffered from for years. This illness finally led to his having to leave the work with the Indians that he loved so much. His younger brother, John Brainerd, eagerly continued the ministry with David’s Indian congregation at Cranbury, New Jersey. In July of 1747 he retreated to the home of his old friend, Rev. Jonathan Edwards, for recuperation. While there Brainerd became engaged to be married to Jonathan Edward’s oldest daughter, Jerusha. She lovingly nursed him during his agonizing illness, yet he finally succumbed to the effects of tuberculosis on October 9, 1747 and died at twenty-nine years of age. Sadly, Jerusha Edwards also contracted tuberculosis and she died on February 14, 1748, five months after Brainerd’s death. She was 19 years old at the time of her death. In recognition of the love they shared for each other, Jerusha Edwards was laid to rest in a grave next to David Brainerd in the Old Cemetery in Northampton, MA. 

Following Brainerd’s his death, his work was fully taken over by his younger brother, John Brainerd. In 1749 Jonathan Edwards published a stirring account of his Diary and Journal which has had a deep influence on Christian missionaries through the years. Such notables as William Carey, Henry Martyn, and Thomas Coke were deeply influenced by Brainerd’s activities and attitudes. This account has become a devotional classic used by God to encourage hundreds to become missionaries in the Lord’s work. In closing, consider these stirring words of David Brainerd as he reflected on the purpose of his life, “I longed to be as a flame of fire, continually glowing in the Divine service, preaching and building up Christ’s kingdom to my latest, my dying hour.” He fulfilled his purpose, and he faithfully served his Lord unto his “dying hour.” Soli Deo Gloria!

David Brainerd’s grave at the Old Cemetery in Northampton, Mass.

An Addendum: 

On July 6, 2009, we (the Serven family) diligently searched for Brainerd’s grave in the Old Cemetery of Northampton, MA. Alas, we could not find it. However, my wife Cheryl spotted a county worker and asked for the location of the grave site. The worker replied that he would be glad to show us where it was and then laughingly remarked that it was only “Bible-thumpers” who seemed to be interested in finding that particular grave. As we stood before David Brainerd’s grave I was glad to be considered a “Bible-thumper” since he also suffered the ridicule of the world for the sake of his Lord, Jesus Christ. We noted that Jerusha Edwards was buried right next to him, although sadly her gravestone has now fallen over. Nearby, can be found the grave of Rev. Solomon Stoddard (Jonathan Edwards’ maternal grandfather), and the graves of several members of the extended Edwards family. To us, this is holy ground. 

Jerusha Edward’s grave is placed right next to her Beloved’s grave

Resources for Further Study: 

Ahlstrom, Sydney E. A Religious History of the American People. 2 Volumes. Garden City, NY: Image Books, 1975.

Douglas, J. D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

  • “Brainerd, David,” by J. G. G. Norman
  • “Calvinism,” by W. S. Reid
  • “Edwards, Jonathan,” by Paul Helm
  • “Eliot, John” by J. D. Douglas
  • “Great Awakening, The,” by Bruce L. Shelley
  • “Presbyterianism,” by W. S. Reid
  • “Tennent, Gilbert,” by Howard A. Whaley
  • “Whitefield, George,” by Arthur Pollard

Edwards, Jonathan, ed. The Life and Diary of David Brainerd. Originally published in Boston, MA: 1749; Reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1989.

Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001.

  • “Edwards, Jonathan,” by Mark A. Noll
  • “New England Theology,” by Mark A. Noll
  • “New Light Schism,” by W. A. Hoffecker
  • “Old School Theology,” by W. A. Hoffecker
  • “Revivalism,”  by M. E. Dieter
  • “The Great Awakenings,” by Mark A. Noll

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Marshall, Peter, and David Manuel. The Light and the Glory. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1977.

Murray, Iain H. Jonathan Edwards: A New Biography. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1987. 

Noll, Mark A. A History of Christianity in the United States. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing House, 1992.

Reid, Daniel G., ed. Dictionary of Christianity in America. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990.

  • “Brainerd, David,” by J. Conforti
  • “Edwards, Jonathan,” by J. H. Edwards
  • “Edwards, Sarah Pierpont,” by R. A. Tucker
  • “Eliot, John,” by G. W. Harper
  • “Great Awakening,” by H. S. Stout
  • “Missions, Evangelical Foreign,” by H. M. Conn
  • “Missions to Native Americans, Protestant,” by M. S. Joy
  • “New Lights,” by H. S. Stout
  • “New Side Presbyterians,” by A. C. Guelzo
  • “Old Lights,” by H. S. Stout
  • “Old Side Presbyterians,” by  A. C. Guelzo
  • “Revivalism,” by W. G. Travis
  • “Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge,” by E. C. Nordbeck
  • “Tennant, Gilbert,” by S. T. Logan

Wells, David F., ed. Eerdman’s Handbook to Christianity in America. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdman’s Publishing House, 1983.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2018 – All Rights Reserved

With the Pilgrims on the 1st Thanksgiving in America

November 24, 2020 /
One artist’s idea of what the 1st Thanksgiving in America looked like

An actual eyewitness of that 1st Thanksgiving (Nov. 1620) was Edward Winslow, a first-comer on the Mayflower. He wrote the following colorful description in his personal account of the founding of Plymouth Plantation:

Edward Winslow

“Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, so that we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little outside help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, amongst other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their great king Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which they brought to the plantation and bestowed on our governor, and upon the captain and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want, that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.”

Edward Winslow, Mourt’s Relation, 72

At that time the Pilgrims were weak and small in size (approx. 52 people–men, women, and children) and the Indians out numbered them greatly (over 90 men). They enjoyed, however, a joyous and peaceful celebration of God’s good blessing upon them. During this time the food was plentiful (with harvested grains, “fowl,” and “five deer”), the feasting was continual (“for three days”), and the entertainments were enjoyable (“we exercised our arms” i.e. fired off their weapons). Here is a beautiful picture of two different cultures gathering together in peace to give sincere thanks to God for his many blessings. It is no wonder that this event captured the imagination of the descendants of the Pilgrims, so that Thanksgiving Day remains an ever popular holiday in modern-day America. May it ever be so.

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

400th Anniversary: The Pilgrims Arrive in New England

November 23, 2020 /
The Pilgrims arrive in New England

During these days of confusion and difficulty, it is helpful for me to recall the faithfulness of God in protecting and providing for the English Pilgrims. They earnestly sought a place where they could worship the Lord according to the teachings of the Bible, raise their children without undue worldly influences, and live as “free-men” building-up their own homes and livelihoods. On November 21, 1620 (i.e. New Style dating) the Pilgrims landed at Cape Cod after a stormy crossing of the Atlantic Ocean. They trusted God to provide for their needs and to help them carve out a flourishing colony from the wilderness, and the Lord certainly did so! Here is William Bradford’s account of their arrival,

But to be brief, after long beating at sea, on November 11th they fell in with a part of the land called Cape Cod, at which they were not a little joyful…Having found a good haven and being brought safely in sight of land, they fell upon their knees and blessed the God of Heaven who had brought them over the vast and furious ocean, and delivered them from all the perils and miseries of it, again to set their feet upon the firm and stable earth, their proper element…As for the season, it was winter…Summer being done, all things turned upon them a weather-beaten face; and the whole country, full of woods and thickets, presented a wild and savage view.

William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 64-65

Let us take heart in knowing that we have a God who hears our prayers and who rewards those who seek after Him. The prophet Isaiah records these words from the Lord, “But this is the one to whom I will look: he who is humble and who trembles at my word.” (Isa. 66:2) Jesus also stated, “But seek first his kingdom and his righteousness, and all these things will be added unto you.” (Matt. 6:33) Let us, then, resolve to be like the Pilgrims who trusted God for their very lives, for their daily provision, and for the welfare of future generations.

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Time Line of Key Events in the Life of John Calvin

November 17, 2020 /
Panorama of the city of Geneva, Switzerland

Compiled by Dr. Marcus J. Serven 

John Calvin as a young man

Who was John Calvin? Many Christians today have distinct impressions of who John Calvin was, but most have never read a single line from his Institutes of the Christian Religion, or benefited from the careful exegesis found in his Commentaries on the Bible, or reflected upon a single salient point from one of his many published sermons. In brief, it must be noted that the reformer John Calvin (1509-1564) has often been misinterpreted, misread, and misunderstood. He is, perhaps, best known for his views on the doctrines of election, predestination, and reprobation. He is also known for his pivotal role in the prosecution of the arch-heretic Michael Servetus (1511-1553) who rejected the Trinity and the deity of Jesus Christ. But, none of these disconnected pieces of information can demonstrate, in my opinion, the true character of the man. And so, who really was John Calvin? Hughes O. Old, a noted scholar of Calvin’s life and theology, states the opinion that, “John Calvin is chiefly remembered as a biblical scholar and a systematic theologian.” (Old, “John Calvin,” in Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith, 45-48) While it is clear that Calvin distinguished himself through his theological writing and teaching ministry, he also, however, was the preeminent pastor of the city of Geneva during the time of the Protestant Reformation. John T. McNeill notes,

“The office of a true and faithful minister is not only publicly to teach the people over whom he is ordained pastor, but as far as may be, to admonish, exhort, rebuke and console each one in particular.” So wrote John Calvin in a section on Visitation of the Sick in his Liturgy. This is traditional and scriptural language, but Calvin gave to it rare emphasis in many utterances and in the organization of the Church in Geneva. Jean Daniel Benoit, the expert on Calvin’s work in the cure of souls, states boldly that the Genevan Reformer was more pastor than theologian, that, to be exact, he was a theologian in order to be a better pastor. In his whole reforming work he was a shepherd of souls.

McNeill, A History of the Cure of Souls, 197-198

Thus, it was Calvin’s role as a “shepherd of souls” that serves as the best lens by which to explain his indefatigable preaching, his voluminous writings, and his strenuous efforts at reforming the City of Geneva according to the Word of God.

HIS EARLY YEARS: BIRTH AND PREPARATION (1509-1531)

  • 1509 – Jean Cauvin is born July 10, 1509 in Noyon, France; he was the second of six children born in the Cauvin family.
  • 1513 – Jean’s mother, Jeanne, suddenly dies when he is just 4 years old; his father, Gerard, remarries
  • 1521 – with his father’s help on May 19th the young Jean Cauvin, a budding scholar, receives a generous financial benefice from the altar of Gesine in the Cathedral of Noyon
  • 1523 – in August he is sent by his father, Gerard, to study at the prestigious University of Paris (14 years old)
  • 1526 – the young Jean Cauvin changes his name to reflect his growing ability and expertise in Latin–he becomes known as Johannes Calvinus
John Calvin’s signature
  • 1528 – Calvin finishes his Bachelor of Arts degree from the College de Montaigu in the University of Paris early in 1528 (18 years old)
  • 1528 – Calvin is sent by his father to study law at the University of Orleans
  • 1529 – Calvin moves to the University of Bourges to study law under the fiery Italian jurist, Alciat; here he begins a lifetime study of NT Greek
  • 1531 – on May 26th Calvin’s father dies, allowing him to return to the University of Paris to study the Bible and Christian theology

IN PARIS: HIS THEOLOGICAL TURNING-POINT (1531-1533)

  • 1531 – Calvin enrolls at the College de France studying Greek, Hebrew, the Bible, Church History, and Theology
  • 1532 – He returns briefly in May to the University of Orleans and graduates with a degree in law, the Juris Doctorate 
  • 1532 – Calvin experiences a “sudden conversion” (the exact date is uncertain)
  • 1533 – on November 1st Nicolas Cop, Calvin’s friend from Noyon, preaches his inaugural address as the new Rector of the University of Paris; but immediately flees Paris in the ensuing controversy over his evangelical message
  • 1533 – following this Calvin is associated with the fugitive Nicholas Cop and he flees Paris dressed as a farmer

IN FLIGHT: ON THE ROAD AS A FUGITIVE (1534) 

  • 1534 – “Calvin’s Wartburg”: during the cold and lengthy Winter months Calvin lays the foundations for the Institutes of the Christian Religion in Louis du Tillet’s library in Angouleme, France
  • 1534 – on May 4th Calvin returns to Noyon and formally resigns his benefices breaking with Roman Catholicism (imprisoned for a short time?)
  • 1534 – The “Affair of the Placards” occurs on the night of October 17-18th with an ensuing persecution by King Francis I of many French Evangelicals (Huguenots); sadly Calvin loses several close friends

IN BASLE: WRITING THE IMMORTAL “INSTITUTES” (1535-1536)

  • 1535 – in January Calvin is safely dwelling in Protestant Basle with the Reformer Oswald Myconius
  • 1536 – on March 21 a theological disputation lead by Guillame Farel and Pierre Viret results in the City of Geneva deciding for the Reformation; the Roman Catholic Bishop, monks, and nuns depart
  • 1536 – in March Calvin publishes his “little book,” the Institutes of the Christian Religion (1st edition), in Basle 
Here is my well-worn copy of the Institutes of the Christian Religion (5th edition) and a devotional commentary on the Institutes by my doctoral mentor, Dr. David B. Calhoun

IN GENEVA: THE FIRST REFORMATION (1536-1538)

Guillame Farel
  • 1536 – Calvin detours to Geneva in July—he plans to stay just one night, but is strongly persuaded by Guillame Farel to remain in Protestant Geneva as a co-worker and fellow Reformer
  • 1536 – on September 5th Calvin is hired as a “sacarum literarum doctor” by the City Council of Geneva to teach the Bible
  • 1536 – on November 10th the Genevan Confession, written by Calvin, is formally adopted by the City Council of Geneva
  • 1537 – in January a Protestant Statement of Faith is presented to the City Council of Geneva; all of the citizens raise their right hands and pledge agreement
  • 1538 – on April 25th, after a growing dissension regarding the Lord’s Supper, the three ministers of the city, Farel, Calvin, & Coralt, are suddenly banished from Geneva for not being willing to serve the Lord’s Supper  

IN STRASBOURG: PASTOR, TEACHER, WRITER (1538-1541)

Martin Bucer
  • 1538 – in the spring Calvin flees from Geneva and travels through Berne and Zurich; he settles in Strasbourg with the Reformer Martin Bucer
  • 1539 – in August Calvin replies to the letter written by Bishop Jacopo Sadolet’s seeking to convince Geneva to return to Roman Catholicism
  • 1540 – in March Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Epistle of the Romans in Strasbourg
  • 1540 – on August 6th Calvin marries the widow Idelette de Bure in Strasbourg

BACK TO GENEVA: THE YEARS OF STRUGGLE (1541-1548)

Idelette Calvin
  • 1541 – after many unsuccessful invitations from the City Council to return to Geneva, Calvin finally arrives in Geneva on September 13
  • 1541 – on November 20th the “Ordannances Ecclesiastiques” are established in Geneva to bring order and reform to the Genevan Church
  • 1542 – the birth and death (July 28th) of John and Idelette Calvin’s son—”Jacques”
  • 1543 – the establishment of the “Libertines” (enfants de Geneve) in Geneva
  • 1543 – a plague rages in Geneva; the City Council votes to remove Calvin from “plague duty” even though he is willing to serve
  • 1543 – in December a conflict erupts with Sebastian Castellio over his qualifications for ministry in Geneva—he was not accepted and leaves Geneva
  • 1544 – on May 30th Sebastian Castellio returns and interrupts the weekly Pastor’s Bible study, Le Congregation, over the question of his ministerial qualifications; he is rejected and bitterly resolves to make trouble for Calvin
  • 1545 – on April 8th Pierre Ameaux is sentenced to public repentance for libeling Calvin and the Genevan Church
  • 1546 – on January 24th Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Epistle of 1 Corinthians in Geneva
  • 1546 – in February Michael Servetus begins correspondence with John Calvin on a multitude of theological subjects—these letters are later printed, without Calvin’s approval, in Servetus’ heretical book (1553)
  • 1546 – problems with the wife of Ami Perrin erupt over public dancing
  • 1546 – on August 1st Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Epistle of 2 Corinthians in Geneva
  • 1547 – on June 27th a letter threatening Calvin was found attached to the pulpit at St. Pierre Cathedral
  • 1547 – after an investigation, Jacques Gruet, the author, confesses his guilt and is sentenced by the Genevan City Council to suffer death by beheading on July 26th; his crime is sedition against the city and the church  
  • 1548 – on February 1st Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Epistles of Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, & Colossians in Geneva
  • 1548 – on July 25th Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Epistles of 1 Timothy and 2 Timothy in Geneva

IN THE CRUCIBLE: SEVERE TRIALS IN GENEVA (1549-1555)

Pierre Viret
  • 1549 – in February Ami Perrin, leader of the Libertines, is chosen as the first Syndic of the Genevan City Council
  • 1549 – on March 29th, Idelette, Calvin’s beloved wife dies after a brief illness; he is heartbroken, but is consoled by his dear friend, Pierre Viret the minister of Lausanne, Switzerland
  • 1550 – Calvin publishes Institutes of the Christian Religion (4th edition) in Geneva
  • 1551 – Calvin publishes his Commentary on James, 1 and 2 Peter, 1 John, and Jude in Geneva
  • 1553 – on January 1st Calvin publishes his Commentary on John in Geneva and dedicates it to the syndics and City Council of Geneva

Michael Servetus
  • 1553 – in January Michael Servetus’s heretical book, Christianismi Restitutio, is secretly printed in Lyon; he is discovered, tried, and imprisoned by the Roman Catholic Inquisition
  • 1553 – Michael Servetus escapes his prison cell in Lyon and is drawn to Geneva “like a moth to light” to justify his theology before Calvin. Key Question: was Servetus recruited by the Libertines to threaten and displace Calvin?
  • 1553 – on August 13th Michael Servetus is recognized and arrested after attending public worship at St. Pierre Cathedral in Geneva
  • 1553 – on September 3rd a crisis at the Lord’s Supper is narrowly averted when Calvin steadfastly refuses to serve any who have been excommunicated 
  • 1553 – after a lengthy trial by the City Council, Michael Servetus, is found guilty of heresy and executed by burning on the Plain Palais on October 27th
  • 1555 – on January 24th the City Council of Geneva formally adopts the “Ordannances Ecclesiastiques” written by Calvin
  • 1555 – on May 16th a public riot instigated by the “Libertines” utterly fails and the key leaders are arrested or flee the city
Calvin barring the Libertines from the Lord’s Table as “the despisers of sacred ordinances”

IN GENEVA: THE YEARS OF TRIUMPH (1555-1564)

Theodore Beza
  • 1555 – on August 1st Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Synoptic Gospels in Geneva
  • 1557 – on July 22nd Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Psalms in Geneva
  • 1559 – on June 5th the Genevan Academy is founded with Theodore Beza as Rector
  • 1559 – on August 1st Calvin publishes his penultimate version of the Institutes of the Christian Religion (5th edition) in Geneva; it consists of eighty chapters in four thick volumes
  • 1560 – the Geneva Bible, with notes written on key verses under Calvin’s supervision, is published in Geneva
  • 1562 – the Genevan Psalter is published in Geneva, with metrical tunes written by Clement Marot and Theodore Beza for all 150 Psalms
  • 1564 – on February 6th Calvin appears for the last time in the pulpit of St. Pierre’s Cathedral 

Calvin’s simple grave at Geneva
  • 1564 – on May 27th John Calvin dies in his own bed at Geneva; he is buried per his wishes with a simple grave in the city cemetery
  • 1564 – Theodore Beza, Calvin’s chosen successor, writes his Life of Calvin & posthumously publishes Calvin’s Commentary on Joshua

Books for Further Research:

John Calvin in his maturity

Beeke, Joel R., David W. Hall, Michael A. G. Haykin. Theology Made Practical: New Studies on John Calvin and His Legacy. Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2017.   

Benoit, Jean-Daniel. “Pastoral Care of the Prophet.” In John Calvin Contemporary Prophet. Edited by Jacob T. Hoogstra. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1959.

Beza, Theodore. “The Life of John Calvin.”In Selected Works of John Calvin: Tracts and Letters. Edited and translated by Henry Beveridge. Volume 1. Originally published in Edinburgh by the Calvin Translation Society, 1844; reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1983.

Bucer, Martin. Concerning the Care of Souls. Translated by Peter Beale. Strasbourg, 1538; Reprint edition, Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2009.

Calvin, John. Calvin’s Commentaries. 46 vols. Various translators. Edinburgh: Calvin Translation Society, 1847-55; reprint edition in 22 volumes, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1998.

Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Edited by John T. McNeill. Translated by Ford Lewis Battles. 2 vols. Library of Christian Classics, no. 20-21. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1960.

Calvin, John. Letters of John Calvin. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Calvin, John. Selected Works of John Calvin: Tracts and Letters. 7 volumes. Co-edited by Henry Beveridge and Jules Bonnet. Originally published in Edinburgh by the Calvin Translation Society, 1851; reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1983.

Calvin, John. The Necessity of Reforming the Church. Reprint, Dallas, TX: Protestant Heritage Press, 1995.

de Greef, Wulfert. The Writings of John Calvin: An Introductory Guide, Expanded Edition. Lyle D. Bierma, trans. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2008. 

Dillenberger, John, ed. John Calvin: Selections from His Writings. Scholar’s Press, American Academy of Religion, 1975.

Gordon, Bruce. Calvin. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009. 

Hughes, Philip E., ed. and trans. The Register of the Company of Pastors of Geneva in the Time of Calvin. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1966.

McKim, Donald ed. Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992.

  • “Beza, Theodore,” by Philip C. Holtrop
  • “Bucer, Martin,” by David F. Wright
  • “Calvin, John,” by Hughes O. Old
  • “Ecclesiastical Ordinances,” by Robert D. Linder
  • “Farel, William,” by Charles Partee
  • “Geneva Academy,” by Robert M. Kingdon
  • “Geneva Bible,” by Dan G. Danner
  • “Geneva Catechism,” by Charles Partee
  • “Geneva Company of Pastors,” by Robert M. Kingdon
  • “Geneva Consistory,” by Robert M. Kingdon
  • “Institutes of the Christian Religion,” by Hughes O. Old
  • “Ordination,” by Thomas D. Parker
  • “Preaching, History of,” by Hughes O. Old
  • “Psalmody,” by LindaJo H. McKim
  • “Predestination,” by Dewey D. Wallace, Jr.
  • “Servetus, Michael” by Nathan P. Feldmeth
  • “Viret, Pierre” by Robert D. Linder

McNeill, John T. A History of the Cure of Souls. New York, NY: Harper Brothers Publishers, 1951. 

Monter, E. William. Calvin’s Geneva. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1967; Reprint, Huntington, NY: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, 1975. 

Parker, T. H. L. Portrait of Calvin. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1954.

Reymond, Robert L. John Calvin: His Life and Influence. Ross-shire, Great Britain: Christian Focus Publications, 2004. 

Selderhuis, Herman J. John Calvin: A Pilgrim’s Life. Translated by Albert Gootjes. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009. 

Stickelberger, Emanuel. Calvin: A Life. Translated by David Georg Gelzer. London: James Clarke & Company, 1959.

Wallace, Ronald. Calvin, Geneva, and the Reformation: A Study of Calvin as Social Worker, Churchman, Pastor and Theologian. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988 and Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1990.

Books full of Calvin’s sermons and a tract on God’s Providence

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2020 – All Rights Reserved

Authority in the Christian Life

October 26, 2020 /

Berthoud, Jean-Marc. Authority in the Christian Life. R. A. Sheets, trans. Monticello, FL: Psalm 78 Ministries, 2020. [152 pages]

Reviewed by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Jean-Marc Berthoud

During the time of the Reformation God raised-up the Reformers to recover the true Gospel and to rekindle a love for God’s Law. We all know their names: Martin Luther, Martin Bucer, Pierre Viret, John Calvin, Theodore Beza, and John Knox. These men established biblical principles of how Christians properly relate to the authorities of this world. Mankind, though, is forever seeking to promote independence from God’s Law and all human authorities. This selfish effort only results in lawlessness, rebellion, and judgment. Now at this time of radical social upheaval, God is raising-up another spokesman, Jean-Marc Berthoud of Lausanne, Switzerland, to trumpet aloud the need for a sober reevaluation of the extent and limits of human authority. One of the most important themes of this volume, in my opinion, is its clear emphasis on how human authorities are responsible to God to be just and upright. When they are not, then they fall under God’s judgment and are likely to be removed by the “lesser powers.” It is not the responsibility of the individual to avenge wrongdoing, but God’s responsibility. Jean-Marc Berthoud forcefully writes,

By avenging ourselves, by rendering evil for evil, we are strengthening the self-justification of the one who is unjust to us. By patiently bearing with injustice, and by even rendering good for evil, we labor to defuse the self-justification of the wicked and awaken his hardened conscience. We are working toward God’s conversion of the wicked. It is through repentance and regeneration, not mob action and revolution, that God changes injustice into justice.

Jean-Marc Berthoud, Authority in the christian life, 29

Thus, he encourages Christians everywhere to advance the Kingdom of God on earth by utilizing spiritual weapons rather than by physical conflict. In brief, he urges Christians to not fall into the revolutionary patterns of the mob, but to submit themselves to God and trust Him to make all things right. Moreover, Jean-Marc Berthoud thoughtfully provides a number of practical scenarios to illustrate the principles he puts forward in this volume—for the businessman, the doctor or nurse, the policeman, the magistrate, the soldier, the teacher, and the church leader. Finally, he deals with the subject of church discipline and delineates between the separated powers of the magistrate and the leaders of the church. This is biblical exposition and theological analysis at its finest.

I highly recommend this slender paperback volume. It can be purchased directly from the publisher at Psalm 78 Ministries (www.psalm78ministries.com), or on Amazon. Read the book!

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

The Bible: A Firm Foundation

October 16, 2020 /
Wycliffe’s Bible (AD 1382)

What does the Bible say about itself? To me, this is a fascinating question because its answer demonstrates the firm foundation that our faith rests upon. Simply stated, we believe that God has revealed himself in the Holy Scriptures. The Bible is more than a book of antiquity, it is the very Word of God. The reformer Martin Luther illustrates this well. When asked about the success of the Reformation, he confidently stated, “I simply taught, preached, wrote God’s Word; otherwise I did nothing. And then, while I slept, or drank Wittenberg beer with my Philip and my Amsdorf, the Word so greatly weakened the papacy that never a prince or emperor did such damage to it. I did nothing. The Word did it all.” Luther’s reflective statement demonstrates the authority and power of the Word of God. With that concept in mind, it is good for us to recall that these are God’s very own words (i.e. a verbal plenary inspiration) and that they demonstrate the self-authenticating nature of the Bible. Consider these following citations from the Bible where it talks about itself (the italics highlight key words and concepts about the Holy Scriptures):

  • In numerous citations throughout the Bible where it says, “Thus saith the LORD”
  • Deuteronomy 29:29 “The secret things belong to the LORD our God, but the things that are revealed belong to us and to our children forever, that we may do all the words of this law.”
  • Deuteronomy 30:11-14 (vs. 14) “But the word is very near to you. It is in your mouth and in your heart, so that you can do it.” 
  • Psalm 119:105 “Your Word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.”
  • Isaiah 40:8 “The grass withers, the flower fades, but the word of our God will stand forever.”
  • Isaiah 55:10-11 “…so shall my word be that goes out from my mouth; it shall not return to me empty, but it shall accomplish that which I purpose, and shall succeed in the thing for which I sent it.”
  • Luke 24:44-48 “Then he said to them, ‘These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still with you, that everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled.’ Then he opened their minds to understand the Scriptures, and said to them, ‘Thus it is written, that the Christ should suffer and on the third day rise from the dead, and that repentance and forgiveness of sins should be proclaimed in his name to all the nations, beginning from Jerusalem. You are witnesses of these things.'”
  • John 5:39 “You search the Scriptures because you think that in them you have eternal life; and it is they that bear witness about me…”
  • John 10:35b “…and Scripture cannot be broken.” (Jesus quotes from Ps. 82:6)
  • John 17:17 “Sanctify them in the truth; your word is truth.”
  • 2 Timothy 2:9 “But the word of God is not bound!”
  • 2 Timothy 3:15 “…and how from childhood you have been acquainted with the sacred writings, which are able to make you wise for salvation through faith in Christ Jesus.”
  • 2 Timothy 3:16-17 “All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness, that the man of God may be competent, equipped for every good work.”
  • Hebrews 4:12-13 “For the Word of God is living and active, sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing to the division of soul and of spirit, of joints and of marrow, and discerning the thoughts and intentions of the heart. And no creature is hidden from his sight, but all are naked and exposed to the eyes of him to whom we must give an account.”
  • 2 Peter 1:19-21 “And we have something more sure, the prophetic word, to which you will do well to pay attention as to a lamp shining in a dark place, until the day dawns and the morning star rises in your hearts, knowing this first of all, that no prophecy of Scripture comes from someone’s own interpretation. For no prophecy was ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit.”
  • 2 Peter 3:15-16 “…just as our beloved brother Paul also wrote to you according to the wisdom given him, as he does in all his letters when he speaks in them of these matters. There are some things in them that are hard to understand, which the ignorant and unstable twist to their own destruction, as they do the other Scriptures.”
William Tyndale’s Bible – AD 1536

I hope you have enjoyed reflecting on these stirring passages about the Bible from the pages of Holy Scripture. Many more biblical citations could be listed, but suffice it to say these particular ones give the Christian some idea of the strength of our spiritual foundation. In brief, it can be resolutely affirmed that the Bible is authoritative, inspired, inerrant, infallible, perspicuous (i.e. its central message is abundantly clear), and sufficient.

We have a firm foundation, indeed!

–Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Missionaries & Martyrs: The Twelve Apostles and other Key Figures in the Early Church

October 15, 2020 /
Saul the Pharisee stands by while Stephen is stoned to death

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

The Early Church was forged in the midst of much persecution and suffering. Jesus told his disciples that “Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.” (Matt. 5:10) And indeed, that is exactly what happened. Wave after wave of persecution flooded the church. But, these early Christians persevered and grew ever stronger in their faith. In the first decade following the resurrection of Jesus, the disciples Stephen, James, Timon, and Parmenas all suffered martyrdom at the hands of the Jews and the Romans. The followers of Jesus fled from Jerusalem when the Apostles were arrested, tried, and jailed. In God’s providence, however, the church spread as a result of this persecution. Cyprian prophetically stated, “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.” And so it was; as the martyrs died, the Church of Jesus Christ spread and multiplied all over the known world. Consider the record of the Twelve Apostles and other key figures in the Early Church. These brave men and women received a “Martyr’s crown” for their steadfast witness to the resurrection of Jesus Christ and for preaching the Gospel.

Following the Crucifixion & Resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth – AD 33…

  • Stephen (a church deacon, Acts 6:5) — was stoned to death in Jerusalem with Saul, the persecutor and Pharisee, standing by and approving of his martyrdom (Acts 7:54-60) 
  • Nicanor (a church deacon, Acts 6:5) — he suffered martyrdom in AD 34.  
  • Mary (the mother of Jesus) — after she “treasured up all these things, pondering them in her heart” regarding Jesus (Luke 2:19, 34-35, 51), she appears to have come to faith following His resurrection (Acts 1:14). She died AD c.40.
  • James (a disciple & brother of John) — James was put to death with a sword by the edict of Herod Agrippa I in AD 44 (Acts 12:1-3).
  • Timon (a church deacon, Acts 6:5) — suffered martyrdom at Philippi in AD 44. 
  • Parmenas (a church deacon) — was martyred in the region of Macedonia in AD 44.
  • Philip (a disciple) — labored in Upper Asia and was scourged, imprisoned, and crucified at Hierapolis in Asia Minor in AD 54. 
  • Matthew (a disciple) — various traditions have him laboring throughout Macedonia, Parthia, & Persia. He wrote the Gospel of Matthew and was slain with a spear or an axe in Nadabah, Ethiopia, in AD 60.  
  • Matthias (a follower of Christ) — took Judas Iscariot’s place following his betrayal and death as one of the twelve disciples (Acts 1:15-26). After preaching and evangelizing throughout Ethiopia he was stoned in Jerusalem and then, beheaded.
  • James the Less (Son of Alphaeus, a disciple) — he ministered and was martyred in Syria. 
The Apostle Andrew as he faced his death sentence in Edessa
  • Andrew (a disciple & brother of Peter) — preached in Asia Minor and Greece; crucified in Edessa on a transverse cross (commonly known as St. Andrew’s Cross).
  • John Mark (an evangelist) — possibly the “young man” who fled from the garden of Gethsemane (Mark 14:51-52); served with Paul and Barnabas on their 1st missionary journey, yet he disappointed Paul and went off with Barnabas (Acts 15:36-41); 2 Tim. 4:11 speaks of Paul and Mark eventually reconciling; tradition tells us that Mark was Peter’s amanuensis for the second gospel; he established churches in Alexandria; he was dragged to pieces by the people of Alexandria, Egypt, because they believed that he offended their idol, Serapis.
  • Apollos (traveling evangelist & preacher) — befriended by Paul and instructed by Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:24-28), he traveled throughout the Mediterranean region seeking to strengthen the churches. Some scholars believe he is the author of Hebrews. 
Peter finding the coin in the fish’s mouth as Jesus said he would
  • Simon Peter (a disciple & brother of Andrew) — he labored throughout the Roman world, perhaps visiting Britain and Gaul; wrote two NT Epistles and superintended the Gospel of Mark (1 Peter 5:13); crucified in Rome upside-down, because he felt unworthy of being crucified in the same manner as the Lord, during Nero’s persecution of Christians (AD 67)
  • Paul (formerly Saul, the persecutor of “The Way”) — the Apostle to the Gentiles; he wrote thirteen Epistles; labored throughout the Roman world; may have visited Spain; beheaded in Rome during Nero’s persecution of Christians (AD 67)
The Apostle Paul hard at work writing his many letters
  • Jude, or sometimes known as Thaddaeus (the Brother of James the Less, a disciple) — was crucified at Edessa in AD 72.
  • Barnabas (the evangelist) — traveled throughout the Roman world and was martyred on Cyprus in AD 73.
  • Bartholomew (a disciple) — accompanied Philip to Hierapolis; martyred after ministry in Armenia or India.  
  • Thomas, or Didymus (a disciple) — labored in Babylon and India; was trust through with a spear by enraged pagan priests in India.
The Apostle Thomas dies while preaching the Gospel in India
  • Luke (the traveling companion of Paul and a physician) — wrote the gospel of Luke and the book of Acts; hanged to death on an olive tree by idolatrous priests in Greece.
  • Simon The Zealot (a disciple) — tradition has him serving in Persia, Egypt, Carthage, and Britain; crucified in Britain in AD 74.
  • Mary Magdalene (a follower of Jesus) — Jesus delivered her of seven demons (Luke 8:1-3), out of loyalty she later stood by Him at the cross (Mark 15:40) and witnessed His resurrection (Mark 16:1-ff). She served with the Apostle John in Ephesus and died there. Her body was later moved to Constantinople. Other traditions suggest that she traveled with Martha and Lazarus to France and is buried there.
  • Timothy (a traveling-companion of Paul, & pastor in Ephesus) — he was badly beaten by a procession of pagans in Ephesus after he preached to them about Christ. Two days later he died from his injuries (AD 97).  
  • John (a disciple & brother of James) — the “one whom Jesus loved”; wrote the Gospel of John, three Epistles, and the Revelation; in Ephesus John was pitched into a cauldron of boiling oil, yet escaped without serious injury; later he was exiled to the island of Patmos by the Roman Emperor, Domitian. John was the only disciple who died a natural death. He died in Ephesus approximately AD 100. 
  • James (the brother of Jesus, Mt. 13:55) — according to Paul, the risen Christ appeared to James (1 Cor. 15:7). Also, James, and Jesus’ other brothers and mother, were gathered with the disciples in Jerusalem following the Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus (Acts 1:13-14).  Following these events James came to faith in Christ and became the leader of the church in Jerusalem. Moreover, he convened the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15) and authored the Epistle of James. He was severely beaten and then stoned by the Jews in his 94th year having his brains dashed out with a club.
The Colosseum in Rome where so many Christians were martyred

Sources of Information:  

Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976. 

Cross, F.  L., gen. ed., and E. A. Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Second Edition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1974. 

Douglas, J. D., gen. ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978. 

Douglas, J. D., gen. ed. Who’s Who in Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 1992.  

Eusebius of Caesarea. Ecclesiastical History. Originally written in A.D. 325; Reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1992.

Foxe, John. Foxe’s Book of Martyrs. Formally known as Actes and Monumentes. William Byron Forbrush, ed. Originally published in English 1563; Reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1967.

Harrison, Everett F. The Apostolic Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1985. 

Houghton, S. M. Sketches in Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Vol. 1. “Apostolic Christianity (A.D. 1-100).” Originally published in 1858; Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendricksen Publishers, 1996.  

Tenney, Merrill C., gen. ed. The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible. 5 Volumes. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1975-1976.  

Walton, Robert C. Chronological & Background Charts of Church History. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1986.  

Woodbridge, John D., gen. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988. 

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2023 – All Rights Reserved

Athanasius: Diligent Defender of the Deity of Christ

October 6, 2020 /
The Ancient Library of Alexandria, Egypt–Athanasius studied here as a young man

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“For in him the whole fullness of deity dwells bodily.” Colossians 2:9

“Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever.” Hebrews 13:5

Jehovah’s Witnesses at the door

Many Christians have had the awkward experience of innocently answering a knock at their front door only to find “doorstep debaters” eager to challenge their beliefs about Jesus Christ. This is not a new situation. The well-known Christian author C. S. Lewis once said, “There are no new heresies.” This simple truth can be confirmed by searching back in Church history and finding that for every modern-day heresy there is an ancient “parent” cult. The early Christians also had to defend themselves from the aggressive tactics of cult groups. Athanasius (A.D. c.296-373) was one such defender of the full deity and full humanity of Jesus Christ. In Christian history he is often referred to as one of the “Giants” of the Early Church because he stubbornly refused to allow the Church to adopt false teachings about the Lord Jesus Christ.

Born to wealthy Egyptian parents in Alexandria, he was trained in all the disciplines of classical Greek learning. Although Athanasius was physically small, he possessed a keen intellect with an aptitude for serious study and determined debate. The Christian school in Alexandria was world-renown for its wonderful library. This unique collection of aged parchments and manuscripts was considered by many to be one of the “Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.” In this scholarly environment young Athanasius quickly showed his academic and spiritual abilities. He was also fascinated by the Christian hermits who had removed themselves from the city. These men sought solitude in the Egyptian desert so that they could totally concentrate on God. His personal conversion can be traced to the winsome evangelical influence of these devoted monks. Even as a young man, Athanasius became well-known as a respected Bible teacher. Moreover, he served as a faithful deacon in the local Church, and he was a trusted theological advisor to the Alexandrian Bishop, Alexander (A.D. c.250-326).

Athanasius

In the year A.D. 325 Athanasius traveled across the Mediterranean Sea to the Council of Nicea (near Constantinople) along with Bishop Alexander. Athanasius served as the Bishop’s personal secretary and aide. This council, which was called by Emperor Constantine (A.D. c.272-337), focused on resolving two nagging conflicts that raged within the Empire: (1) the disagreement between Christians about whether those who had fearfully rejected Christ during the persecutions could be forgiven (i.e. the Melitian Schism); and (2) the heterodox preaching of false teachers who denied the full deity of Jesus Christ (i.e. the Arian Heresy). This second dispute, which was far less emotionally charged than the rift concerning unforgiven brethren, was actually much more serious because of its long-range effect on the foundational doctrines of the Church. The essential question was this: “Who is Jesus Christ?” If the Ancient Church answered that question by denying the full deity of Christ, its basic understanding of many of the precious doctrines of the Bible would be distorted; specifically, the doctrine of Creation, the Trinity, the incarnation of Christ, the redemption of sinners by Christ on the Cross, and the bodily Resurrection of Jesus Christ. The Council of Nicea, therefore, was a crucial turning-point in the history of the Church. Out of its scholarly dialogue and intense debates would emerge a champion to give future leadership and direction to orthodox Christianity. The man of the hour whom God raised up was twenty-nine year old Athanasius—short, swarthy, and scholarly.

In contrast, the opponent of Athanasius was the tall, handsome, and eloquent Arius (A.D. 256-336). He served as an Elder (or Presbyter) within a local Alexandrian congregation. He was well-known in the community as a person who loved debate, and who entered into disputes about theology. One day after hearing Bishop Alexander teach at a local Synod on the reasonableness of the Trinity, Arius contentiously put forward the argument that Jesus Christ was not divine but only God’s first created creature. By teaching this view Arius declared that Jesus was not the eternally begotten Son of God, but that he was created in time like an angel or a human being. He wrote to a sympathetic friend contrasting the teaching of Bishop Alexander with his own views concerning the person of Jesus Christ. Arius contended, 

…how grievously the bishop attacks us and persecutes us, and comes full tilt against us, so that he drives us from the city as atheists because we do not concur with him when he publicly preaches, “God always, the Son always; at the same time the Father, at the same time the Son; the Son co-exists with God, un-begotten; he is ever-begotten, he is not born-by-begetting; neither by thought nor by any moment of time does God precede the Son; God always, Son always, the Son exists from God himself.” … To these impieties we cannot even listen, even though the heretics threaten us with a thousand deaths … We are persecuted because we say that the Son has a beginning, but God is without beginning. For that reason we are persecuted, and because we say that he is from what is not. And this we say because he is neither part of God nor derived from any substance. For this we are persecuted; the rest you know.

Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, “The Letter of Arius to Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia,” 41-42) 

Thus, the Arians came to believe that Jesus Christ was “a little god” not having the same essential nature, or substance, as God the Father. In this way they denied the deity of Christ and greatly disturbed the Church. The Emperor, Constantine, was not happy with the bitter controversy that ensued and he found it necessary to call an ecumenical council of the whole Church which convened on May 20, 325 at Nicea (near Constantinople in Asia Minor).

Many leaders within the Ancient Church followed Arius because of the close connection that his teachings had with Greek philosophy and religion. Within the Greek pantheon there were many “lesser gods” who did the bidding of the “highest God.” Also, in Greek thought it was assumed that all flesh is evil and all that is spiritual is holy. Therefore, the Arians reasoned that Jesus Christ could not be fully human and fully divine at the same time. Since he was only a created being he could not possibly be called the Creator, nor could he fully satisfy God’s divine justice when he died on the Cross, neither could he experience a bodily resurrection on the third day. In order to promote his “false gospel” amongst the common people Arius rewrote many popular songs from the taverns and seaports by altering their words. He used the same tunes, but changed the lyrics. This strategy was highly successful and many orthodox Christians leaders despaired that the whole Christian world was becoming followers of Arius.

The Council of Nicea (A.D. 325)

When the Council of Nicea finally met in A.D. 325 the outcome was far from certain. Three hundred Bishops and a large number of Church representatives attended from all across the Empire. Among the delegates were followers of Bishop Alexander (Trinitarians), semi-Arians (who held to a middle view of the subordination of the Son to the Father), and a small but vocal group of Arians (with Arius also present). After Emperor Constantine began the proceedings extensive debate followed with Eusebius of Caesarea (a semi-Arian) putting forth a creedal statement as a basis for compromise. After several changes and refinements the Council overwhelmingly concluded that Jesus Christ was of the “same nature” as God the Father (homoousias), rather than being of a “like nature” to God the Father (homoiousias). The Nicene Creed that was forged out of this rigorous debate affirmed that Jesus Christ, the eternal Son of God, was coequal, consubstantial, and coeternal with the Father. Although Arianism was officially rebuked at the Council of Nicea, and Arius was exiled, this smooth-talking heretic continued to find willing adherents within the Church for many years to come.

A short time after Athanasius returned from Nicea he was thrust into leadership as the new Bishop of Alexandria. His long-time mentor and close friend, Bishop Alexander, died an untimely death in A.D. 326 and the thirty year old Athanasius became his successor. When no one else was willing to defend the deity of Christ, Athanasius resolutely held fast to the Nicene formulation. His friends referred to his dogged defense by coining the phrase, Athanasius: Contra Mundum (or, “Athanasius: Against the World”). He was severely put to the test in the 330’s when Arius treacherously signed the Nicene Creed, after making a few private additions to it (e.g. he changed homoousias to homoiousias). As a result, Emperor Constantine ordered Athanasius to readmit Arius to the Lord’s Table. But, Athanasius stubbornly refused! For this he was condemned at the Synod of Tyre (A.D. 335) and exiled to the desert. For the next thirty years Athanasius was restored and exiled four different times! It was during one of these forced exiles in the wilderness that Athanasius befriended the reclusive monk, Anthony (A.D. 251-356). He became widely known for writing the compelling biography, The Life of Saint Anthony, which details the victories and challenges of the spiritual life of the reclusive desert hermit. 

Finally, Athanasius brought some level of resolution to the controversy focused on the deity of Christ with his brilliant treatise The Incarnation of the Word. He wrote, 

We were the cause of his becoming flesh. For our salvation he loved us so much as to appear and be born in a human body … No one else but the Savior himself, who in the beginning made everything out of nothing, could bring the corrupted to incorruption; no one else but the Image of the Father could recreate men in God’s image; no one else but our Lord Jesus Christ, who is Life itself, could make the mortal immortal; no one else but the Word, who orders everything and is alone the true and only-begotten Son of the Father, could teach men about the Father and destroy idolatry. Since the debt owed by all had to be paid (for all men had to die), he came among us. After he had demonstrated his deity by his works, he offered his sacrifice on behalf of all and surrendered his temple [i.e. his body] to death in the place of all men. He did this to free men from the guilt of the first sin and to prove himself more powerful than death, showing his own body incorruptible, as a first-fruit of the resurrection of all … Two miracles happened at once: the death of all men was accomplished in the Lord’s body, and death and corruption were destroyed because of the Word who was united with it. By death immortality has reached all and by the Word becoming man the universal providence and its creator and leader, the very Word of God, has been made known. For he became human that we might become divine; he revealed himself in a body that we might understand the unseen Father; he endured men’s insults that we might inherit immortality.

Athanasius, The Incarnation of the Word 4.20.54

This powerful tract and several others brought Athanasius into better favor with the Emperor and gave a clear set of arguments with which to combat Arianism. It was, however, not until after Athanasius’s death (A.D. 373) that Arianism was finally defeated at the Council of Constantinople (A.D. 381). It was here that the followers of Athanasius formulated the doctrine of the hypostasis which is based on Hebrews 1:3 and the Greek word hypostasis meaning “substance,” “nature,” and “being.” Therefore, the orthodox position regarding the doctrine of the Trinity is the following—“one essence in three hypostases” (mia ousia, treis hypostaseis).

The Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451)

At a subsequent ecumenical gathering, the Council of Chalcedon in A.D. 451, it was further affirmed that the two natures of Jesus Christ are understood as a Hypostatic Union. In other words, Jesus Christ is fully God and fully man at the same time (cf. John 1:1-3, 14, 18; Colossians 2:9; Hebrews 1:1-8). The final summary of the teachings of Athanasius are to be found in the Athanasian Creed which was not actually written by Athanasius, but by one who followed his teachings in the sixth century. As a result of his efforts the error of Arianism was finally defeated, but unfortunately it was not totally eradicated. To this day the erroneous teachings of the heretic Arius are embodied in the beliefs of the modern-day Jehovah’s Witnesses and various other individuals who have departed from the truth. 

Louis Berkhof, the well-regarded Reformed systematic theologian, gives us the following summary of the doctrine of the deity of Jesus Christ. He carefully explains, 

The Council of Nicea declared the Son to be co-essential with the Father (A.D. 325), while the Council of Constantinople (381 A.D.) asserted the deity of the Holy Spirit, though not with the same precision. As to the interrelation of the three it was officially professed that the Son is generated by the Father, and that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son…In this one Divine Being there are three Persons or individual substances, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This is proved by the various passages referred to as substantiating the doctrine of the Trinity. To denote these distinctions in the Godhead, Greek writers generally employed the term hupostasis, while Latin authors used persona, and sometimes substantia…Consequently many preferred to speak of three hypostases in God, three different modes, not of manifestation as Sabellius taught, but of existence or subsistence…The whole undivided essence of God belongs equally to each of the three persons. This means that the divine essence is not divided among the three persons, but is wholly with all its perfection in each one of the persons, so that they have numerical unity of essence…There are certain personal attributes by which the three persons are distinguished…Though they are all works of the three persons jointly, creation is ascribed primarily to the Father, redemption to the Son, and sanctification to the Holy Spirit. This order of the divine operations points back to the essential order in God and forms the basis for what is known as the economic Trinity.”

Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 82-83, 87-89

Summary statements regarding the doctrine of the deity of Jesus Christ can be found in the great ecumenical creeds as well as in creeds from the time of the Reformation. For example, the Nicene Creed (A.D. 325), the Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451), the Athanasian Creed (A.D. c.500), and the Westminster Confession of Faith (A.D. 1647) all contain statements supporting the full deity and humanity of Jesus Christ. Sections from each of these historic creeds can be found in the Appendices that follow.   

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Appendix A  

The Nicene Creed

(Adopted in A.D. 325 and revised in A.D. 381)

We believe in one God, the Father All-sovereign, maker of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible; 

And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten [monogene] Son of God, Begotten of the Father before all the ages, God of God, Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten not made, of one substance with the Father [homoousian to patri], through whom all things were made; who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was made flesh of the Holy Spirit and the virgin Mary, and became man, and was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and was buried, and rose again on the third day according to the Scriptures, and ascended into the heavens, and sitteth on the right hand of the Father, and cometh again with glory to judge the living and the dead,  of whose kingdom there shall be no end: 

And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Life-giver, that proceedeth from the Father [and the Son], who with the Father and the Son is worshipped together and glorified together, who spake by the prophets: 

In one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church: we acknowledge one baptism unto remission of sins. We look for a resurrection of the dead, and the life of the age to come. 

(Source: Henry Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, 27-28)

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Appendix B

The Council of Chalcedon

(Adopted in A.D. 451)

Therefore, following the holy Fathers, we all with one accord teach men to acknowledge one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, at once complete in Godhead and complete in manhood, truly God and truly man, consisting also of a reasonable soul and body; of one substance [homoousios] with the Father as regards his Godhead, and at the same time of one substance [homoousios] with us as regards his manhood; like us in all respects, apart from sin; as regards his Godhead, begotten of the Father before the ages, but yet as regards his manhood begotten, for us men and for our salvation, of Mary the Virgin, the God-bearer [Theotokos]; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten [monogene], recognized in two natures [en duo phusesin; i.e. The Hypostatic Union], without confusion, without change, without division, without separation; the distinction of natures being in no way annulled by the union, but rather the characteristics of each nature being preserved and coming together to form one person [prosopon] and subsistence [hypostasis], not as parted or separated into two persons, but one and the same Son and Only begotten God the Word, Lord Jesus Christ; even as the prophets from earliest times spoke of him, and our Lord Jesus Christ himself taught us, and the creed of the Fathers has handed down to us.

(Source: Henry Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, 54-55)

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Appendix C 

The Athanasian Creed

(Written by followers of Athanasius’ teachings in A.D. c.500)

  1. Whosoever will be saved: before all things it is necessary that he hold the Catholic Faith. 
  2. Which Faith except every one do keep whole and undefiled: without doubt he shall perish everlastingly. 
  3. And the Catholic Faith is this: That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; 
  4. Neither confounding the Persons: nor dividing the Substance [Essence].
  5. For there is one Person of the Father: another of the Son: and another of the Holy Ghost. 
  6. But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, is all one: the Glory equal, the Majesty coeternal. 
  7. Such as the Father is; such is the Son: and such is the Holy Ghost.
  8. The Father uncreated: the Son uncreated: and the Holy Ghost uncreated. 
  9. The Father incomprehensible [unlimited]: the Son incomprehensible [unlimited]: and the Holy Ghost incomprehensible [unlimited, or infinite]. 
  10. The Father eternal: the Son eternal: and the Holy Ghost eternal. 
  11. And yet they are not three eternals, but one eternal. 
  12. As also there are not three uncreated: nor three incomprehensible [infinites], but one uncreated: and one incomprehensible [infinite]. 
  13. So likewise the Father is Almighty: the Son Almighty: and the Holy Ghost almighty. 
  14. And yet they are not three Almighties: but one Almighty. 
  15. So the Father is God: the Son is God: and the Holy Ghost is God.
  16. And yet they are not three Gods: but one God.
  17. So likewise the Father is Lord: the Son Lord: and the Holy Ghost Lord.
  18. And yet not three Lords: but one Lord. 
  19. For like as we are compelled by the Christian verity: to acknowledge every Person by himself to be God and Lord:
  20. So are we forbidden by the Catholic Religion: to say, There be [are] three Gods, or three Lords.
  21. The Father is made of none: neither created, nor begotten. 
  22. The Son is of the Father alone: not made, nor created: but begotten. 
  23. The Holy Ghost is of the Father and of the Son: neither make, nor created, nor begotten: but proceeding.
  24. So there is one Father, not three Fathers: one Son, not three Sons: one Holy Ghost, not three Holy Ghosts. 
  25. And in this Trinity none is afore, or after another: none is greater, or less than another [there is nothing before, or after: nothing greater or less]. 
  26. But the whole three Persons are coeternal, and coequal.
  27. So that is all things, as aforesaid: the Unity in Trinity, and the Trinity in Unity, is to be worshipped.
  28. He therefore that will be saved, must [let him] thus think of the Trinity.   

 (Source: Philip Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom, Vol. 2, 66-68)

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Appendix D

The Westminster Confession of Faith (1647)

Regarding the Doctrine of the Trinity: 

Chapter 2, “Of God, and of the Holy Trinity”  

Article 3. In the unity of the Godhead there be three persons, of one substance, power, and eternity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost: the Father is of none, neither begotten, nor proceeding; the Son is eternally begotten of the Father; the Holy Ghost eternally proceeding from the Father and the Son. 

Regarding the Person of Jesus Christ: 

Chapter 8, “Of Christ the Mediator”

Article 1. The Son of God, the second person in the Trinity, being very and eternal God, of one substance and equal with the Father, did, when the fullness of time was come, take upon Him man’s nature, with all the essential properties and common infirmities thereof, yet without sin: being conceived by the power of the Holy Ghost, in the womb of the virgin Mary, of her substance. So that two whole, perfect, and distinct natures, the Godhead and manhood, were inseparably joined together in one person, without conversion, composition, or confusion. Which person is very God, and very man, yet one Christ, the only Mediator between God and man. 

Article 2. The Lord Jesus, in His human nature thus united to the divine, was sanctified and anointed with the Holy Spirit, above measure, having in Him all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge; in whom it pleased the Father that all fullness should dwell; to the end that, being holy, harmless, and undefiled, full of grace and truth, He might be thoroughly furnished to execute the office of a mediator and surety. Which office He took not unto Himself, but was thereunto called by His Father, who put all power and judgment into His hand, and gave Him commandment to execute the same.

(Source: Orthodox Presbyterian Church, “Westminster Confession of Faith,” 12, 34-37)

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Select Bibliography:  

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  • “Alexandrian Theology,” by Paul Woolley
  • “Antiochene Theology,” by Paul Woolley
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  • “Athanasian Creed,” by John F. Johnson
  • “Arianism,” by Victor L. Walter
  • “Cappadocian Fathers,” by Victor L. Walter 
  • “Chalcedon, Council of,” by J. H. Hall
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  • “Hypostatic Union,” by Craig A. Blaising
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  • “Jehovah’s Witnesses,” by Irving Hexham
  • “Jesus Christ,” by R. H. Stein 
  • “Logos,” A. F. Walls
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  • “Monarchianism,” by Craig A. Blaising
  • “Nicea, Council of,” by Craig A. Blaising
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  • “Orthodoxy,” by J. I. Packer
  • “Paul of Samosata,” by Gary T. Burke
  • “Perichoresis,” by Stephen M. Smith
  • “Socinus, Faustus,” by P. Kubricht
  • “Subordinationism,” by Richard C. Kroeger & Catharine C. Kroeger
  • “Substance,” by Gary T. Burke
  • “Trinity,” by Geoffrey W. Bromiley
  • “Unitarianism,” by C. Gregg Singer
  • “Word, Word of God, Word of the Lord,” by H. D. McDonald  

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth  Trust, 1980.

Kelly, J. N. D. Early Christian Doctrines. 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Harper and Row Publishers, 1960.

Lane, Tony. Exploring Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2006. 

Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity. Volume 1. Revised Edition. New York, NY: Harper and Row Publishers, 1975.

Noll, Mark A. Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1997. 

Robertson, Archibald, ed. St. Athanasius: Select Writings and Letters. Volume IV. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Originally published 1891, Reprint 1998. 

Schaaf, Philip. The Creeds of Christendom. Volume 2. 6th Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, Reprint 1998.

Woodbridge, John D., ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

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