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How the Protestant Reformers are Still Changing the World

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Third Man of the Reformation: Ulrich Zwingli

January 31, 2026 /
Key Protestant Reformers–(L to R) Ulrich Zwingli, Pierre Viret, John Knox, Martin Luther, John Calvin, Willaim Tyndale, and John Wycliffe

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“Christ is the only way to salvation for all who were, are, and ever shall be.” Zwingli, Sixty-Seven Articles, #3

Zwingli’s humble birthplace

Most Christians today know very little about the Protestant reformer, Ulrich Zwingli
(1484-1531). If you actually lived in Switzerland, however, you would esteem him as one of the more significant figures in Swiss history—one who brought Switzerland out of the darkness of Medievalism into the modern age. Born and raised in Wildhaus, a small rural village in the region of Toggenburg, Ulrich Zwingli was drawn into church service from an early age. He pursued orders within the Roman Catholic Church and he was ordained as a priest in 1506 (at 22 years old). Zwingli served as the pastor of a small rural congregation in Glaurus, Switzerland for ten years before he sought after more extensive training in biblical languages and theology. He settled at the Abbey of Einsiedeln and during his studies he was deeply stirred by reading the New Testament (in the Greek text) and the Early Church Fathers (in Latin and Greek). In time, Zwingli experienced an evangelical conversion and became the pastor of the church in Einsiedeln. As he began preaching the word of God, his popularity grew and he was noticed by others throughout Switzerland.

Zwingli as a young Pastor

As a result, Zwingli was invited to be a guest preacher in the Great Minster of Zurich (Ger. Grossmuenster). Following a series of sermons on the Gospel of Matthew, Zwingli was invited to become the pastor of the Great Minster and in a short time he became known as the “People’s Priest” (1519-on). Building his ministry on the clear exposition of the Bible, he was convicted to bring about many reforms within the church. In particular he advocated a great number of significant changes: the breaking of Lent, allowing the clergy to marry, encouraging a fresh translation of the Bible, revising the baptismal order, criticism of the Mass, the removal of images in churches (i.e. iconoclasm), severing the church from the control of the Papacy, the dissolution of monasteries, reforming the ministerial schools, establishing weekly Bible study groups for the clergy (which were called “prophesyings”), the termination of church music, the replacement of the Mass, establishing a quarterly Communion, ordering synodical church government, and setting-up church discipline under a shared clerical and lay control. These sweeping reforms kept him extremely busy, but they also awakened a small group of vocal citizens in Zurich who were opposed to his efforts.  Since he worked with the local magistrates at enforcing these reforms, he became known (along with Martin Bucer, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and several other reformers) as one of the “Magisterial Reformers.”

The beautiful city of Zurich, Switzerland
Swiss Sausages of the kind eaten by Zwingli and others at the “Sausage Supper” (1522)

In 1522 Zwingli participated in the “Affair of the Sausages” when he boldly stood against the Roman Catholic prohibition of eating meat during Lent. This simple Swiss dinner at the home of Christoph Frowschauer, kicked-off the Reformation in Zurich and represented a repudiation of Roman Catholic practices. On a more personal note, in early 1524 Zwingli secretly married Anna Reinhart (a local widow). A public ceremony occurred a few months later when they were married in the church on April 2, 1524. Over time they were blessed with four children—Regula, William, Huldrych, and Anna.

A year later in 1525 a small, but determined, group of young men in Zurich began advocating that only adult believers should be baptized, in contrast to the regular practice of infant baptism. Three out-spoken leaders emerged from this group: Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz, and Georg Blaurock. They called themselves “Anabaptists” (Gk. ana-baptizo = again baptized). A public disputation was held between Zwingli and the Anabaptist leaders, but the City Council favored the arguments for the validity of infant baptism presented by Zwingli. As a result, the Anabaptists were repressed, persecuted, arrested, imprisoned, banished, and some were even executed. Sadly, Zwingli encouraged this purge. Nevertheless, despite the persecution it was out of this small group that the Anabaptist movement emerged and rapidly spread throughout Europe. Martin Luther coldly referred to the Anabaptists as “Schwarmer” (i.e. like the bugs found under a rock). Moreover, Zwingli published an extensive critique of Anabaptism called, Refutation of the Tricks of the Catabaptists (i.e. the Anabaptists). Much later, in a more charitable manner, certain scholars of the Reformation referred to the Anabaptist sect as the “Radical Reformation” and “The Stepchildren of the Reformers.”

Luther and Zwingli debate the nature of the Lord’s Supper at the Marburg Colloquy (1529)

In 1527 Zwingli participated in an important meeting with Martin Luther and other Reformers at Marburg, Germany. The purpose of this conciliatory gathering was to bring about an opportunity for the German Reformers to find common ground in their doctrines and practices with the Swiss Reformers. Good progress was being made until the participants came to the subject of the Lord’s Supper. At that point a severe disagreement took place between Luther and Zwingli over the “real presence of Christ” in the elements of the Lord’s Supper. Luther taught “Consubstantiation” (i.e. that Christ is present “in, with, and under” the elements). Zwingli, however, taught that the Lord’s Supper is merely a “Memorial Feast” (i.e. a time of remembering the sacrifice of Christ on the Cross for the sins of his people). In response, Luther loudly shouted the words of Jesus, “Hoc est corpus meum” (“this is my body”)! Luther angrily repeated this phrase over and over to Zwingli at the gathering and thereby ended the discussion. Sadly, any possibility of the Lutheran and Reformed theologians coming to an agreement on the real presence of Christ in the Lord’s Supper was destroyed. Rather than finding unity, this gathering brought about a breach between the Lutheran churches and the Reformed churches that still remains to this day.

Finally, in 1529 Zwingli participated in a military conflict between Zurich and the neighboring Roman Catholic cantons (i.e. the 1st Cappel War). The outcome was a uncertain and an armistice was negotiated. A few years later at the Second Battle of Cappel in 1531 Zwingli served as a chaplain to the army of Zurich. Unfortunately, he was encountered on the battlefield by enemy soldiers, was recognized, and immediately slain. The people of Zurich had lost their “People’s Priest” and they deeply mourned the loss. Zwingli was succeeded in Zurich by his assistant, Johan Heinrich Bullinger (1504-1575). A leading Reformation scholar, Dr. Geoffrey Bromiley, summarizes the numerous contributions that Zwingli made at reforming the church in Switzerland; he notes, 

Zwingli’s death at the 2nd Battle of Cappel (1531)
Ulrich Zwingli in his maturity

“Zwingli dismantled the corrupt medieval system. Like Luther, he stopped the hierarchical abuse of power and the financial racketeering associated with masses, indulgences, relics, and pilgrimages. He substituted the popular tongue for Latin and replaced the sacramentalist round by the expository preaching of a trained ministry. More radically than Luther, he simplified the liturgy, purging it of esthetic elements. He took a more drastic disciplinary action, set up synodical government, brought the laity more fully into church affairs, and secured tighter biblical control. Zwingli’s work had its defects. His services involved liturgical impoverishment, especially the odd exclusion of singing (later reversed). He tied church and state too closely together, working through the council, retaining tithes, and enforcing discipline by secular penalties. The discipline involved an unhealthy and petty legalism, and cantonal policy became subservient to religious ends, with disastrous results at Cappel. Theologically, Zwingli, like Luther, opposed the distortions linked to purgatory, merit, clericalism, sacramentalism, and tradition. He championed scriptural primacy, Christ’s all-sufficient work, justification by faith, election, and calling by Word and Spirit. Distinctive emphases include the clarity and power of Scripture, the Spirit as its true exegete, the covenant, divine sovereignty in providence and predestination, and the Eucharist as a visible word by which the Spirit nourishes those who partake in faith.”

— Geoffrey Bromiley, “Third Man of the Reformation” in Great Leaders of the Christian Faith, 200

This great Swiss champion served in the first wave of the Protestant Reformation (1515-1535). In time, Ulrich Zwingli would become known to many as “The Third Man of the Reformation” behind two other Protestant Reformers of note—Martin Luther and John Calvin. To this day, however, the people of the Reformed churches in Switzerland see him as an example of a mighty man of God. He led the way back to the gospel, which had been corrupted by the traditions of men, and restored a vibrant life-giving faith. In short, Zwingli reintroduced the Swiss people to their Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ. And for that, they remain exceedingly grateful! 

Rising high above the city of Zurich, the lofty spires of the Grossmuenster Cathedral serve as an ongoing memorial to their beloved pastor–Ulrich Zwingli!

*     *     *     *     *     *     *     

His Early Years: Birth and Preparation (1484-1506) 

1484    Born on January 1st in Wildhaus (Toggenburg), a small village in the canton of St. Gallen, Switzerland 

1489    Zwingli begins his initial studies in Weesen, then in Basel, and later in Bern 

1498    He begins University studies in Vienna, and again at Basel under the reforming ministry of Thomas Wyttenbach (1472-1526)

In Glarus: His Ordination and Service as a Priest (1506-1516)

1506    Ordained into the Roman Catholic priesthood he serves as pastor for ten years at the village church in Glarus, Switzerland 

1510    He writes The Poetic Fable about the Ox, an allegorical poem criticizing the Swiss mercenary system

1513    Zwingli travels to Novara, Italy with troops from Glarus and witnesses first hand the horrors of warfare; as a result he rejects the Swiss mercenary system

1516    He writes The Labyrinth; a satirical allegory that criticizes the use of mercenaries to fight the wars of others

1516    He accompanies Glarus troops to Marignano, Italy 

1516    Zwingli visits in Basel with the Humanist Scholar, Desiderius Erasmus (c.1466-1536)

In Einsiedeln: His Conversion and Initial Efforts at Reform (1516-1518)

1516    He studies at the Abbey of Einsiedeln and comes to an evangelical faith; in particular he focuses his studies on the Greek New Testament and the Early Church Fathers

1516    In November Zwingli is appointed the pastor of the church in Einsiedeln

1518    He is offended by the peddling of indulgences by a Franciscan priest named Samson; he begins to doubt the authenticity and authority of the Roman Catholic Church 

In Zurich: Serving as the People’s Priest (1519-1528)

1519    On January 1st he begins the verse by verse exposition of Matthew’s Gospel (Lat. lectio continua); large crowds eagerly attend his preaching in Zurich

1519    Zwingli begins his public ministry as the “People’s Priest” (Ger. Leutpriester) at the Great Minster (Ger. Grossmuenster) in Zurich

1519    Zwingli strongly urges the magistrates of Zurich to rebuff Samson, the seller of indulgences, at the gates of the city; Samson returns to Italy in defeat

1522    The “Affair of the Sausages” takes place as a rejection of not eating meat during Lent; this event sparks the Protestant Reformation in Zurich

1522    Zwingli begins making numerous reforms in Zurich–to the worship service and to the morals of the people; many approve, but a few oppose his reforms

1523    The Zurich Disputation takes place and the city becomes Protestant

1523    Zwingli writes the Sixty-Seven Articles; Divine and Human Righteousness; and publishes a key sermon on The Clarity and Certainty of the Word of God .

1524    Zwingli secretly marries Anna Reinhart (a widow); a few months later they are married in a public ceremony on April 2, 1524

1525    The rise of the Anabaptist sect occurs in Zurich. A public disputation takes place, but the arguments of Zwingli prevail. The leaders of the Anabaptist movement are jailed, exiled, and some are even executed

1525    Zwingli writes three significant treatises True and False Religion; The Pastoral Office; and Baptism

1526    Zwingli writes a highly-valued treatise on nature of the Lord’s Supper

1526    The Baden Disputation—Zwingli suffers a setback when the Roman Catholic theologian John Eck prevails over Johannes Oecolampadius (a fellow-reformer); as a result Zwingli’s books are banned by the Papacy

1527    Zwingli writes Refutation of the Tricks of the Catabaptists (i.e. the Anabaptists)

1528    The Bern Disputation—Zwingli reverses the defeat suffered at Baden by his powerful preaching and argumentation; Bern becomes a Protestant canton

1528    Bern endorses Protestant reform efforts in Basel, Vaud, Neuchatel, and Geneva–leading over time to each canton identifying with the Protestants

At War: Theological and Military Conflicts (1529-1531) 

1529    First Cappel War—Roman Catholic cantons versus the Protestant cantons; an armistice is negotiated, but with no apparent victor

1529    The Marburg Colloquy takes place, but with no measurable results

1530    Zwingli writes An Account of the Faith (Lat. Fidei Ratio); he also publishes a key sermon on the doctrine of God’s Providence

1530    The Augsburg Diet. Zwingli writes his well-regarded treatise, Exposition of the Faith, for King Francis 1st of France with the hope that he could be won to the Reformation; this proves to be futile

1531    Second Cappel War begins and Zwingli dies in the battle (October 11, 1531); all of Zurich and the Protestant forces mourn his death

1531    Zwingli is succeeded by Heinrich Bullinger in December 1531; Bullinger becomes the Head Pastor of the Great Minster in Zurich and ably serves for the next 44 years

Resources for Further Study: 

Bainton, Roland H. The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Boston, MA: The Beacon Press, 1952.

Bettenson, Henry. Documents of the Christian Church. Second Edition. London, Great Britain: Oxford University Press, 1963.

Bromiley, Geoffrey. “Third Man of the Reformation” in Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Edited by John D. Woodbridge. Chicago, IL: The Moody Press, 1988. 

Bromiley, Geoffrey, ed. Zwingli and Bullinger. The Library of Christian Classics. Vol. 24. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1953.

Douglas, J.D. ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

  • “Bucer (Butzer), Martin” by D. F. Wright
  • “Bullinger, Johann Heinrich” by Robert C. Walton 
  • “Erasmus, Desiderius” by Robert G. Clouse
  • “Luther, Martin” by Carl S. Meyer
  • “Marburg Colloquy (1529)” Robert G. Clouse
  • “Oecolampadius” by Robert G. Clouse 
  • “Zwingli, Ulrich” by Robert C. Walton 

Douglas, J. D. ed. Who’s Who In Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.

Dowley, Tim ed., The History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford, Great Britain: Lion Publishers, 1990.

Estep, William R. The Anabaptist Story. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1975. 

Fox, John. Fox’s Book of Martyrs. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1967.

Gabler, Ulrich. Huldrych Zwingli: His Life and Work. Edinburgh, Scotland: T&T Clark, 1986. 

George, Timothy. Theology of the Reformers. Nashville, TN: The Broadman Press, 1988.

Houghton, S.M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Jackson, Samuel Macauley, ed. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531): Selected Works. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1901.

Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity (Vol. 1). Revised Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, 1975.

Verduin, Leonard. The Reformers and Their Stepchildren. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1964.

Williams, George Hunston. The Radical Reformation. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1962

Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2026 – All Rights Reserved

Rev. George Mueller: Minister to Street Children in Victorian England

January 5, 2026 /

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“Do not be anxious about anything, but in everything by prayer and supplication with thanksgiving let your requests be made known to God.” Phil. 4:6

George Mueller (1805-1898), in my opinion, is one of the most remarkable men of faith in the 19th Century. Following his conversion in a prayer meeting at age twenty, he began to develop a great passion for the evangelization of the Jews. He subsequently left his native Germany and traveled to England to be trained as a missionary. In 1829 he associated with The London Society for Promoting Christianity Amongst the Jews. After relating to the society for less than a year, he received formal notice that they felt he was unfit to be a missionary because of his unwillingness to submit to the leadership of the society. This was an extremely humbling blow to his dreams and aspirations, but it can now be seen in hindsight that this was God’s way of breaking him of his pride and fierce independence. In George Mueller’s Bible the following verse is underlined, “The steps of a man are ordered by the Lord” (Ps. 37:23) and then in his own handwriting, “as well as his stops.” God’s providential hand had firmly closed the door on George Mueller becoming a missionary to the Jews—but what door would the Lord now open for him?

Shortly after his dismissal George Mueller started preaching in a small Plymouth Brethren congregation. There in 1830 he met and married his life’s partner, Mary Groves, and also made a life-time commitment to receive no salary from his ministry, simply living “by faith.” Little did he know that God was already preparing him for a ministry that would focus on meeting the needs of one of the most disadvantaged groups of society; the homeless “street children” of Victorian England. After witnessing first hand the deplorable state that many young children were in, Mueller determined—with God’s help—to be a “Father of the fatherless” (Ps. 68:5). What began as a small effort in 1832, when the Mueller’s opened their home for children to sleep on the floor at night and to receive a warm breakfast the next morning, eventually grew into five large homes on Ashley Down in Bristol, England. These purpose built dormitories cared for as many as 2,000 orphaned and abandoned children all at one time. Besides providing food for the orphans, Mueller’s ministry was also committed to providing clothing, Christian education, and vocational training. All this was accomplished “by faith” without any public solicitation for funds.

A girls class at the Bristol orphanage from the 1840’s 

Consider these typical examples of God’s provision from Mueller’s detailed diary,

August 18, 1838. I have not one penny in hand for the Orphans. In a day or two again many pounds will be needed. My eyes are up to the Lord. Evening. Before this day is over, I have received from a sister λ5. She had some time since put away her trinkets, to be sold for the benefit of the Orphans. This morning, whilst in prayer, it came to her mind, “I have this λ5, and owe no man anything, therefore it would be better to give the money at once, as it may be some time, before I can dispose of the trinkets.” She therefore brought it, little knowing that there was not a penny at hand, and that I had been able to advance only λ4 15s 5d for housekeeping in the Boy’s Orphan House, instead of the usual λ10; knowing also, that within a few days many pounds more will be needed.

August 20, 1838. The λ5 which I had received on the 18th, had been given for housekeeping, so that today I was again penniless. But my eyes were up to the Lord. I gave myself to prayer this morning, knowing that I should want again this week at least λ13, if not above λ20. Today I received λ12 in answer to prayer, from a lady who was staying at Clifton, whom I had never seen before.

August 23, 1838. Today I was again without one single penny, when λ3 was sent from Clapham, with a box of new clothes for the Orphans.

— Roger Steer, George Mueller: Delighted in God!, 89

These are the buildings that served the orphanage in Bristol, England. Today, they house a museum dedicated to the life and work of George Mueller, and a local Community College.

Mueller was convinced that God had “a bank which cannot break.” After the first five years of operating the orphan home “by faith” Mueller explained,

The chief end for which the Institution was established is that the Church of Christ at large might be benefited by seeing manifestly the hand of God stretched out on our behalf in the hour of need, in answer to prayer. Our desire, therefore, is not that we may be without trials of faith, but that the Lord graciously would be pleased to support us in the trial, that we may not dishonor Him by distrust. This way of living brings the Lord remarkably near. He is, as it were, morning by morning inspecting our stores, that accordingly He may send help. Great and more manifest nearness of the Lord’s presence I have never had, than when after breakfast there were no means for dinner, and then the Lord provided the dinner for more than one hundred persons; or when after dinner, there were no means for tea, and yet the Lord provided the tea; all this without one single human being having been informed about our need…

— Roger Steer, George Mueller: Delighted in God!, 107

During the course of sixty-six years of ministry there was never a day that the orphans went hungry or were ill-dressed. A debt never went unpaid. Through his ministry, the Scriptural Knowledge Institution, he tabulated that 1,453,153 pounds was raised for the work of the gospel. Asked his secret, Mueller replied, “There was a day when I died, utterly died,” and, as he spoke, he bent lower and lower until he almost touched the floor, “died to George Mueller, his opinions, preferences, tastes, and will—died to the world. Its approval or censure—died to the approval or blame even of my brethren and friends—and since then I have studied only to show myself approved unto God.” Here was a humble man of faith who served a faithful and generous Lord. He carried out his life and ministry by trusting God for the results, and therefore he became a powerful example of Christian piety to the entire world. His motto was simple: “The beginning of anxiety is the end of faith. The beginning of true faith is the end of anxiety.” The Lord blessed him in all that he endeavored. When anxious, he simply got on his knees and prayed that God would meet the need. And it can be demonstrated that the Lord never let him down.

Here is a picture of Rev. George Mueller and a favorite quote

Sources of Information:
Davey, C. “George Mueller: Brethren Philanthropist” in Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Edited by John D. Woodbridge. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

Douglas, J. D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

  • “George Mueller” by J. G. G. Norman
  • “Plymouth Brethren” by G. C. D. Howley

Douglas, J. D. and Philip W. Comfort, eds. Who’s Who in Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.

  • “George Muller” by Norman Hillyer

Steer, Roger. George Muller: Delighted in God! Wheaton, IL: Harold Shaw Publishers, 1975.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2026 – All Rights Reserved


R. B. Kuiper on Apostolic Succession

November 12, 2025 /
St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh, Scotland. John Knox faithfully served here as Pastor from 1559-1572.

“And they devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching…” Acts 2:42a

The quote below from R. B. Kuiper’s classic treatise, The Glorious Body of Christ, really resonated with me. He powerfully argues that, “Organizational succession without doctrinal succession is worthless.” Those churches who have departed from the teaching of the Apostles have no real connection to the true Christian faith. They are mere counterfeits and shadows of what our Lord Jesus Christ intended. Let us, then, “contend for the faith that was once for all delivered to the saints” (Jude 1:3b). It is only those who have remained faithful to the teachings of the Lord and the Apostles who should be considered as legitimate churches of Jesus Christ.

Prof. R. B. Kuiper (1886-1966)

Certain churches lay claim to apostolicity in the sense of their being exclusively, or nearly so, the uninterrupted continuation of the organized church as it existed in the days of the apostles. Particularly do they boast of their clergy as the unbroken succession of the bishops ordained by the apostles. This view is known as “apostolic succession” and is held by the Greek Catholic, the Roman Catholic and the Anglican churches…One serious fallacy in these claims to apostolic succession is that they completely overlook the fact that organizational succession does not guarantee doctrinal succession. To say nothing of the other communions just named, the Roman Catholic Church has departed very far from the teaching of the apostles. Does it not deny that doctrine which lies at the very heart of apostolic teaching—justification by faith only? For that reason, among others, the Reformers of the sixteenth century did not hesitate to pronounce Rome a false church. Organizational succession without doctrinal succession is worthless. A church that possesses the former but has lost the latter is no longer a church of Jesus Christ. Our Reformed fathers were right when they said that ‘succession of doctrine’ rather than ‘succession of persons and places’ is a mark of the true church. [See Bavinck, Gereformeerde Dogmatiek, Vol. IV, p. 353]”

— R. B. Kuiper, The Glorious Body of Christ, 64-65.

Remember the distinction made in Kuiper’s quote–that the difference between “organizational succession” and “doctrinal succession” is the determining factor between truth and error. It is only faithful “doctrinal succession” that is worth fighting for. Moreover, upholding the “apostles’ teaching” is a mark of the true church of Jesus Christ.

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Source: Kuiper, R. B. The Glorious Body of Christ: A Scriptural Appreciation of the One Holy Church. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1967.

Biographical Statement: Prof. R. B. Kuiper served as the President of Calvin College for 22 years (1930-1952). He then taught at Westminster Theological Seminary for 14 years as the Professor of Practical Theology (1952-1966). He was well-loved for his zeal in teaching the Bible and for the application of its principles to the doctrine of the Church. “Well done good and faithful servant” (cf. Matt. 25:21).

Girolomo Savonarola: A Fiery Italian Reformer and Martyr

October 29, 2025 /
The Basilica Santa Maria Novella lies in the very center of Florence, Italy–it is such a beautiful, inspiring, and majestic city!

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“For we are an aroma of Christ to God among those who are perishing, to one a fragrance from death to death, to the other a fragrance from life to life.” 2 Cor. 3:15-16

Who was Girolamo Savonarola (A.D. 1452-1498)? Briefly stated, he was an Italian monk and preacher who arose just prior to the Reformation. Savonarola was under Dominican orders and vows throughout his adult life (from 1474); although he grew somewhat more independent as he became better known throughout Italy. Born in Ferrara, from 1482 he made his home and base of operations in Florence. There he became the Prior of the convent of San Marco and began to preach in the cathedral. Church historian, S. M. Houghton observes,

But whereas Wycliffe and Huss were involved in attacking the unbiblical teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, Savonarola was not a doctrinal reformer. He was a man who attacked the evil lives and immoral habits of many of his fellow countrymen. God had used the writings of Augustine of Hippo to open his eyes to the moral apostasy in the Church.

— S. M. Houghton, Sketches in Church History, 72

One artist’s depiction of Girolamo Savonarola preaching his message of reform to the people of Florence, Italy

He called the city and the Roman Catholic Church to moral reform by a series of scathing sermons on a coming Apocalypse. This apocalyptic theme, which he garnered from reading the Old Testament prophets and the Book of Revelation, dominated his preaching and became his lifetime message. For example Savonarola proclaimed in one fiery sermon, “In the primitive church the chalices were of wood, the prelates of gold; in these days the church hath chalices of gold and prelates of wood.” This kind of direct confrontation of church leaders brought forth both praise from some and opposition from others. Moreover, Savonarola embraced an early version of the doctrine of biblical authority (Lat. Sola Scriptura = “by Scripture Alone”) and called the Church to reject the authority of the Pope by looking to the Bible alone.

Girolamo Savonarola in his maturity (1452-1498)

In 1494 Charles VIII, King of France, sent his armies ravaging throughout Italy and twice spared Florence due to Savonarola’s requests. The people of Florence interpreted this to be an example of God protecting the city from judgment. Savonarola used this “victory” to call for further moral reforms in Florence, which were enforced at times with a strong hand—for example during the Carnival of 1496 many profane and lewd books were publicly burnt in a “bonfire of vanities.” Some people welcomed these changes, but others resisted his efforts at reformation. He was openly opposed by the rival Franciscans, and by citizens who were still loyal to Piero de’ Medici (who had fled when Charles VIII threatened the city with destruction).

Pope Alexander VI (1431-1503)

Pope Alexander VI (also known as Alexander Borgia) responded to Savonarola’s criticisms of the Roman Catholic Church by threatening to place Florence under an interdict if they allowed Savonarola to continue his preaching. The Pope referred to Savonarola as “that meddlesome friar” and in 1497 excommunicated him. Savonarola responded with the charge that the Pope was “a representative of Satan not of Christ.” This led to Savonarola’s arrest in 1498, a trial for sedition and heresy, an extensive time of torture, and finally on May 23 a martyr’s death. Between episodes of torture he wrote meditations on Psalm 32 and 51, which Martin Luther later published and referred to them as “a piece of evangelical testing and Christian piety.” At his execution, Savonarola was stripped of his priestly vestments. The presiding Bishop said, “I separate thee from the church militant and from the church triumphant.” Savonarola boldly replied, “Militant, not triumphant, for you have no power to separate me from the church triumphant to which I go.” He was then hanged, and his body was burned at the stake. His remains, and those of two other men who were killed alongside of him, were thrown into the river Arno so that no relic of his life could be preserved. Dr. Howard F. Vos summarized Savonarola’s life with these words,

While Savonarola demanded reform in the church, he never took the more advanced position of Wycliffe and Huss. He had no quarrel with the teaching or the organization of the church, but seems to have believed in justification by faith. He was characterized by religious zeal and personal piety.

— Howard F. Vos, Who’s Who in Christian History, 607-608

Thus, a remarkable man passed from the scene. Yet, his energetic preaching, biblical teaching, and personal zeal laid the ground work for the Reformation which would spring forth into existence from the religious awakening of another monk in twenty years time–and that man was Martin Luther.

Here is the execution of Savonarola in the public square of Florence (May 23, 1498). In God’s providence he preceded the beginning stages of the Reformation by twenty years. Many of the Protestant Reformers greatly esteemed him!

Resources for Further Study:

Douglas, J. D., Gen. Edit. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

  • “Alexander VI,” by Robert C. Clouse
  • “Dominicans” by A. S. Toon
  • “Papal States,” by Marvin W. Anderson
  • “Reformation, The” by Robert D. Linder
  • “Roman Catholicism” by H. M. Carson
  • “Savonarola, Girolamo,” by Robert C. Clouse

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Kuiper, R. B. The Glorious Body of Christ. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1966.

Sheldon, Henry C. History of the Christian Church. Vol. 2, “The Medieval Church.” New York, NY: Thomas Y. Crowell and Co., 1895; Peabody, MA: Hendricksen Publishers. Reprint, 1988.

Vos, Howard F. “Savonarola” in Who’s Who in Christian History. Douglas, J. D. and Philip W. Comfort (Co-editors). Wheaton, IL: Tyndale Publishers, 1992.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright Nov. 2025 – All Rights Reserved

B. B. Warfield on the Doctrine of Assurance

October 28, 2025 /
Archibald Alexander Hall at Princeton Theological Seminary

“The Spirit himself bears witness with our spirit that we are children of God, and if children, then heirs–heirs of God and fellow heirs with Christ…” Rom. 8:16-17a

A close family friend sent this powerful quotation from Dr. Benjamin B. Warfield to one of my family members who has been struggling with her health. What an encouragement it was to her and to all of us! This citation is from a sermon given by Dr. Warfield in Miller Chapel to his students at Princeton Theological Seminary. Over the course of his lengthy ministry of teaching systematic theology in the classroom (1887-1921), he also passionately exhorted his students from the pulpit. Let me share it with you…

Dr. B. B. Warfield (1851-1921)

“If God be for us who can be against us?” (Rom. 8:31) Let our hearts repeat this cry of victory today. And as we repeat it, let us go onward, in hope and triumph, in our holy efforts. Let our slack knees be strengthened and new vigor enter our every nerve. The victory is assured. The Holy Spirit within us cannot fail us. The way may be rough; the path may climb the dizzy ascent with a rapidity too great for our faltering feet; dangers, pitfalls are on every side. But the Holy Spirit is leading us. Surely, in that assurance, despite dangers and weakness, and panting chest and swimming head, we can find strength to go ever forward.”

— Warfield, Biblical and Theological Studies, 558

I pray the Lord will encourage and strengthen you to go forward by faith in the Christian life. The Holy Spirit who dwells within you, is stronger than all of the temptations and trials of this present world (1 Cor. 3:16 and 6:19-20; 1 John 4:4). His presence in our life is a great blessing, and one that we should regularly remind ourselves of. Recall as well, this ringing exclamation: “If God be for us who can be against us?” (Rom 8:31)

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Source: Warfield, Benjamin Breckinridge. “A Sermon: The Leading of the Spirit” in Biblical and Theological Studies. Edited by Samuel G. Craig. Philadelphia, PA: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1968. [page 558] 

This is not a very clear photo–but here is my family and some dear friends gathered at the graves of B. B. Warfield and his wife in the Old Princeton Cemetery (“Heroes, History, and Hope Tour” 2013)

A Reformation Day Sermon: “The Lord is our Fortress” Psalm 46

October 27, 2025 /
The Wartburg Castle near Eisenach, Germany, is where Dr. Martin Luther was safely held for nearly a year in 1521-1522

“The LORD of hosts is with us; the God of Jacob is our fortress.” Psalm 46:11

Yesterday, I had the opportunity to preach for Reformation Sunday at Redeemer Presbyterian Church (PCA) here in Austin, Texas. We have four pastors at Redeemer, and since I am the only one who is “semi-retired” I usually preach once or twice a year. Instead, my main role at Redeemer is focused on teaching. I regularly instruct adults in our School of Discipleship classes on Sunday mornings. Beyond that, I am the director of Redeemer Theological Academy teaching college-level courses in Biblical studies, Systematic Theology, Church History, Apologetics, and Ministry. This suits me quite well, and I am grateful to focus my energies on teaching at this point in life. Nonetheless, below is an audio file of my most recent sermon. Also, you will find an introduction to the sermon and an outline of the text. I hope you enjoy it!

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

* * * * * * * * * *

“The Lord is our Fortress” – Psalm 46:1-11

Direct, succinct, and pastoral–it is hard to beat Derek Kidner’s fine commentary on the Psalms.

Introduction: The image of a “fortress” or “stronghold” in relation to the Lord shows up in many passages in the Old Testament (e.g. 2 Sam. 22:1-4; Ps. 9:9; 18:2; 31:3; 71:3; 91:2; 144:2; Prov. 18:10; Jer. 16:19). It is a portrait of strength, security, and safety for the people of God. Indeed, the Lord is the only one who could provide such protection in times of trouble. He is the one who created all things and also controls all things (Ps. 103:19). Essentially, this word-picture of a “fortress” and “stronghold” teaches us the doctrine of the sovereignty of God. In other words, we can believe that when everything in our world seems to be falling apart we can take comfort from the fact that all things are firmly under the control of the Lord. Even when misfortunes come our way, or when wickedness is exalted, we can be confident that “The Lord has made everything for its purpose, even the wicked for the day of trouble” (Prov. 16:4). This doesn’t mean that we never experience any difficulties and trials in life. It does mean, however, that God is in the midst of these difficulties and trials, and that he is able to bring good out of them (Rom. 8:28). Let us, then, go forward as those who trust in the sovereign rule of the Lord over all things in our own personal circumstances and in the tumultuous events of this world. Soli Deo Gloria!

Here is an outline of my sermon:
1. The Lord is our Refuge and Strength, (vs. 1-3)
2. The Lord is the Source of All Blessings, (vs. 4-5)
3. The Lord is the Ruler of the Nations, (vs. 6-9)
4. The Lord is the King of His Saints, (vs. 10-11)

These four volumes are good places to start if you want to know more about Martin Luther

Also, here is a short article about the fateful day that Martin Luther was kidnapped and taken to the Wartburg Castle.

The Day Martin Luther was Kidnapped!

Count Nicholas Von Zinzendorf & the Moravian Missionaries

September 30, 2025 /


Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“Trust in the LORD with all your heart, and do not lean on your own understanding. In all your ways acknowledge him, and he will make straight your paths.” Proverbs 3:5-6

As a young man Nicholas Von Zinzendorf (1700-1760) struggled with what the Lord would have him do in his life. He thought, “Perhaps I should be a missionary, or a minister, or an evangelist. How can I decide between these three?” But his wise and pious Grandmother urged him to accept the fact that he had been born a Prince who in time would become a very powerful Count amongst the nobility in Saxony, Germany. In God’s providence he would inherit thousands upon thousands of acres of land, several fortified castles, and an immense fortune. He would be a ruler over many subjects, and if he followed his father’s example he would be a wise and compassionate leader. He still, however, questioned his calling as a future ruler.

Count Nicholas Von Zinzendorf’s impressive estate in Herrnhut, Saxony

Going off to foreign lands with the gospel seemed so much more exciting and glamorous to him! He dreamed of serving the Lord and sharing the gospel with the heathen tribes all around the world. One day when Zinzendorf was eighteen years old he was touring a museum in Dusseldorf, Germany when he came across a famous painting—Ecce Homo (“Behold the Man”) by Domenica Feti. In the title the artist quotes the mocking words of Pontius Pilate as he presents Jesus Christ to the hostile crowd in Jerusalem before sending him off to be crucified–“Behold the Man!” (see: John 19:5). The artist also gives his painting the caption, “This I have suffered for you; now what will you do for me?” This painting and the challenging question attributed to Jesus deeply stirred the young man. As he reflected upon this experience, along with his Grandmother’s wise counsel, he realized that he could serve God as a Count just as well as serving Him as a missionary, minister, or evangelist. Zinzendorf wrote in his diary, “I have loved him [Jesus Christ] for a long time, but I have never actually done anything for Him. From now on I will do whatever He leads me to do.” He determined at that moment to fulfill his destiny and become a wise and compassionate ruler just like his father.

The Czech Preacher & Martyr, Jan Hus (1369-1415)

In time, Zinzendorf legally inherited the land, the castles, and the wealth. He took his place amongst the German nobility as the Count of Saxony. About the same time he also became aware of the many trials and tribulations of a small group of Christian refugees in nearby regions. What exactly was their story? Two hundred and fifty years before, the ancestors of these refugees had come to Christ through the powerful preaching ministry of the Czech minister Jan Hus (1369-1415). Ever since Jan Hus had been betrayed and put to death, his followers had been harassed and persecuted so much that they fled into the forests of Bohemia never settling but moving from place to place. They became known as the “Bohemian Brethren” and eventually sought refuge in Austria, Poland, Southern Germany, and Moravia. In 1722 when Zinzendorf heard about their sufferings his heart was broken and he invited these religious refugees to settle on his land. He called the settlement Herrnhut (lit. “under the Lord’s watch”) and eventually they became known as the Moravians. While they were under Count Zinzendorf’s protection, they flourished and began earnestly training to go to far-away lands as missionaries to preach the gospel, make disciples, and establish churches.

Moravian Missionaries preaching the Gospel to the natives in North America

Where did the Moravians go? In 1732 some went to the West Indies to evangelize the African slaves of the Caribbean. Some went to the frozen lands of Greenland and Labrador to preach to the Eskimos. Some went to the South Sea Islands to minister to the native tribes and fierce head-hunters. Some went to India to proselytize the Hindus. And some went to the American colonies to bring the gospel to the native Indians. In 1735 John Wesley—the famous preacher and evangelist of the 1st Great Awakening—encountered Moravian missionaries on the same ship that he was traveling on when he sailed to Georgia as a missionary.

A year later after a dismal experience in Georgia Wesley encountered some Moravian missionaries once more when he returned to England. He recorded in his personal Journal how impressed he was with their piety and courage during a life-threatening storm at sea. He also reflected in his Journal, “I went to Georgia to convert the Lost, but Oh who will convert me?” Once he arrived back in England, Wesley sought out a Moravian gathering at the Fetter Lane Chapel in London. There he heard the fiery Moravian preacher, Peter Boehler, read from Martin Luther’s Commentary on Paul’s Letter to the Romans and give a short message on Romans 1:16-17. As a result, Wesley’s “heart was strangely warmed” and by the regenerating power of God he was thoroughly converted. Throughout the remainder of his life Wesley conducted extensive preaching missions in England and America. From this effort the Methodist Church was established. The simple witness of the Moravians had an absolutely huge impact upon his life and future ministry.

Nicholas Von Zinzendorf in his maturity (1700-1760)

And so, did Nicholas Von Zinzendorf make the right decision? It turned out that he found great purpose and intense satisfaction in doing the very thing that was right in front of him—fulfilling his call to become a Count, a kind-hearted ruler, and a member of the German nobility. Given his immense wealth and extensive properties he was able to minister to fellow Christians who were persecuted and afflicted. He provided safety and security at Herrnhut so that the Moravians could equip themselves as missionaries, ministers, and evangelists. He died a happy man knowing that the Lord had used his service as a Count in a remarkable and lasting way. Truly, he “trusted the Lord with all his heart…and the Lord made straight all his paths” (Prov. 3:5-6). Let each one of us resolve to do the same—to trust the Lord to direct our steps, and to be faithful at doing what lies right in front of us.

Hernhut as it looks today: “The little village that changed the world”

Resources for Further Study:

Douglas, J. D. ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

The seal and motto of the Moravians
  • “Bohemian Brethren” by Peter Toon
  • “Boehler, Peter” by J. G. G. Norman
  • “Constance, Council of” by Robert G. Clouse
  • “Czechoslovak Church” by J. G. G. Norman
  • “Hus, Jan” by Matthew Spinka
  • “Luther, Martin” by Carl S. Meyer
  • “Moravian Brethren” by J. G. G. Norman
  • “Pietism” by Robert G. Clouse
  • “Wesley, John” by A. Skevington Wood
  • “Zinzendorf, Nicholas Von” by Richard V. Pierard

Firak, Tom. “Zinzendorf, Nicholas Von” in Who’s Who In Christian History. J. D. Douglas, ed. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Neill, Stephen. A History of Christian Missions. Second Edition. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1986.

Outler, Albert C., ed. John Wesley. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1964.

Schattschneider, Allen W. Through Five Hundred Years: A Popular History of the Moravian Church. Fourth Edition. Bethlehem, PA: The Moravian Church in America, 1996.

Serven, Marcus J. “Jan Hus (1373-1415): Bohemian Reformer and Martyr” on The Genevan Foundation Website, 2012. (Here)

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright, Sept. 2025 – All Rights Reserved

The Council of Nicaea (AD 325) and the Development of the Nicene Creed

July 23, 2025 /

“I believe…in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of his Father before all worlds, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God…” The Nicene Creed (Modern Version)

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

For the past 1,700 years the Nicene Creed has stood as a formidable bulwark against theological heresy. The Christian Church has recited it in our worship services and studied its doctrinal formulations in our theology classes. The first of the Ecumenical Creeds, it set the standard for how we answer the question, “Who is Jesus Christ?” Over time its affirmations have become known as settled doctrine and as a result it has saved many a Christian from being lured into erroneous beliefs about the Lord Jesus Christ. Let us give thanks to God for the theological precision of the Nicene Creed and its careful commitment to the authority of Holy Scripture. Under what circumstances did it come about?

The Historical Context:

Called by Emperor Constantine in AD 325, this council focused on two significant problems within the Church: (1) the Melitian schisms (i.e. the re-admittance of lapsed Christians from the Diocletian persecution), (2) and the Arian crisis (i.e. the rejection of Jesus Christ as the eternal Son of God). The decisions made at the Council of Nicaea proved to be pivotal in answering these two conflicts. Dr. John H. Leith, the noted Church historian, described the context of the Council of Nicaea especially in relation to the Arian crisis in this way: 

Dr. John H. Leith

“The occasion was the dispute concerning the theology of Arius, which raised in acute form the question of the meaning and significance of Jesus Christ. The Christian community had been accustomed to regard him as God as well as man. Arian theology forced the Christian Church to say in what sense he was God. Arius insisted that the Word or Son was a creature, that he was made by God, that he had a beginning, and that he was subject to change. This means, as Athanasius pointed out, that the Son does not have full and accurate knowledge of the Father. In Jesus Christ, man is not really confronted by God. The Nicene Creed insisted that God has fully come into human history in Jesus Christ. It sought to make this clear through certain key phrases in the creed: ‘That is, of the essence of the Father’; ‘True God from true God’; ‘Begotten, not created’; ‘Of one essence [reality] with the Father’.”

— John H. Leith, Creeds of the Churches, 28-29.

Constantine (c.274/280-337)

Beginning on May 20th, AD 325, the council included three hundred and eighteen representatives of which most were from the Greek-speaking East. The Latin-oriented West was only represented by four or five bishops and two priests from Rome; although Bishop Hosius (AD c.256-357) from Cordova, Spain presided over the entire council. Regarding the question of the “lapsed” (Lat. lapsi), the council determined that these individuals should be restored to fellowship within the church upon the confession of their sin and a demonstration of genuine repentance. Church officers who “lapsed” was a  more complicated problem. Generally, it became the practice that they could be restored to fellowship within the Church, but not restored to their former offices.

The second question, however, proved to be much more difficult to resolve. The Arians believed that Jesus Christ was a “little god” who was created by the Father, and therefore was subordinate to the Father. After rigorous debate the council concluded that Jesus Christ was of the “same nature” (Gk. homoousias) as the Father, rather than being of “like nature” (Gk. homoiousias) to the Father. Briefly stated, Jesus was recognized as the eternal Son of God, sharing the same essential nature as God the Father. Arianism was declared to be a heresy. The statement “I and the Father are one” (in John 10:30) was clearly to be understood as a reference to the Father and the Son sharing the “same essential nature.” The Nicene Creed was formed out of this theological disputation and affirmed the doctrine that Jesus Christ was “of the same nature” with the Father. 

Eusebius of Caesarea

Eusebius of Caesarea (AD c.265-c.339) submitted a baptismal creed from his own city as a basis for the final form of the creed. Athanasius (AD c.296-373), the great defender of Nicene Christology, attended this council as an assistant to his mentor, Bishop Alexander (d.328) of Alexandria. Arius (c.250-d.336) and his supporters, notably Eusebius of Nicomedia (d.342) also attended the council, but were excommunicated as a result. Arianism, though, remained popular within the Empire until it was finally repudiated at the 1st Council of Constantinople in AD 381. Hence the Creed that we now recite is sometimes referred to as the Niceo-Constantinopolitan Creed. Despite the defeat of Arianism at Constantinople (AD 381), this false system of belief claiming that Jesus Christ “was created” lives on in the heretical teachings of the modern-day Jehovah Witnesses who hold that Jesus Christ was the Father’s first created creature. 

Here is a fragment in Greek from the earliest known copy of the Nicene Creed (kept at the John Rylands Library in Manchester, England)

The Development of the Creed: 

During the heated debate at the council of Nicaea, Eusebius of Caesarea artfully suggested the adoption of the baptismal creed from his own church as a formula of orthodoxy. The connection between the wording in the baptismal creed of Caesarea and the future Nicene Creed can clearly be seen. The Caesarean Creed reads as follows, 

“We believe in one God, the Father All-sovereign, the maker of things visible and invisible; And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Word of God, God of God, Light of Light, Life of Life, Son only-begotten, Firstborn of all creation, begotten of the Father before all ages, through whom also all things were made; who was made flesh for our salvation and lived among men, and suffered, and rose again on the third day, and ascended to the Father; We believe also in one Holy Spirit.” 

The creed presented by Eusebius was certainly orthodox, but most delegates at the council recognized that it did not deal explicitly with the Arian position—and that was the very issue that must be addressed. Thus, it was taken as a foundational document, and after several additions was put forward by the council in this revised form (additions and alterations are in italics):

“We believe in one God the Father All-sovereign, maker of all things visible and invisible; And in the one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father, only-begotten, that is, of the substance of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten not made, of one substance with the Father, through whom all things are made, things in heaven and things on the earth; who for us men and for our salvation came down and was made flesh, and became man, suffered, and rose on the third day, ascended into the heaven, is coming to judge living and dead. And in the Holy Spirit. And those that say ‘There was when he was not,’ and that, ‘He came into being from what-is-not,’ or those that allege, that the son of God is ‘Of another substance or essence’ or ‘created,’ or ‘changeable’ or ‘alterable,’ these the Catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes.” 

(Both citations are from Bettenson and Mauder, Documents of the Christian Church, 4th Edition, 26-27)

Each one of these three volumes gives the text of the Nicene Creed and speaks to the reasons why it was absolutely necessary to formulate it.

A Theological Analysis of the Nicene Creed:

As time progressed, the anathemas at the end of the Nicene Creed dropped away. The version of the Nicene Creed listed below comes from the text used by Cyril of Jerusalem (AD c.310-386) in his Catechetical Lectures on the theology of the Creed. This version also reflects the additions made at the First Council of Constantinople in AD 381. Note: The text of the Nicene Creed is in quotes; and my theological comments are in bold type.

— “We believe in one God the Father All-sovereign [Gk. pantokratora], maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible.” (Affirming that God the Father is the Creator of all things, and rejecting the errors of Gnosticism and the Greek mystery religions that  teach there are many so-called “gods” who are only known through a “secret knowledge.”)

— “And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten [Gk. monogenes] Son of God,” (Affirming the eternal Sonship of Jesus Christ, and rejecting the false belief of the Ebionites that Jesus was only a deeply spiritual man) 

— “Begotten [Gk. gennethenta pro panton ton aionion] of the Father before all the ages,” (Affirming the pre-existence of Jesus Christ, and rejecting the false narrative of the Arians that Jesus was the Father’s first created creature) 

— “Light of Light, true God of true God,” [Gk. phos et phosos, Theon alethinon ek Theou alethinou] (Teaching that Jesus Christ is of the same nature and essence [Gk. hypostasis or ousia] of God the Father, and rejecting the false teaching that Jesus was only “like” God but not truly God)

— “begotten not made,” [Gk. gennethenta ou poiethenta] (Affirming the preexistence of Jesus Christ before all time, and denying the false belief of the Arians that there was a time when Jesus Christ “was not”) 

— “of one substance with the Father,” [Gk. homoousian to patri] (Essentily teaching that Jesus Christ is “coequal, consubstantial, and coeternal” [from the Confession of Chalcedon in AD 451] with the Father, against the erroneous teaching of Arianism and Eunomianism [a later variant of Arianism in the 4th Century], which asserts that Jesus Christ is only “like” God the Father but not of the same essence [i.e. that the Son of  God was subordinate to the Father]. While it is true that Jesus subordinated himself to the Father’s will [cf. Luke 22:42], this in no way takes away any claim to his essential nature of being equal with God the Father [cf. John 1:1-5; 1:14, 18; 5:18; 8:56-59; 10:30-33; 17:1-5; Phil. 2:9-11; Col. 2:9; Heb. 1:1-3])  

— “through whom all things were made; who for us men and for our salvation came down from heavens, and was made flesh [Gk. sarkothenta] of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, and became man [Gk. enanthropesanta],” (Stating that Jesus Christ participated in the creation of “all things” in the beginning, and that he “was made flesh…and became man” through the Incarnation by means of the Virgin Birth. These affirmations stood against the errors of Monophysitism [Jesus has only one nature—a divine nature] and Adoptionism [Jesus only became the Son of God at his baptism])

— “and was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and was buried,” (Affirming the doctrine of the Substitutionary Atonement by use of the words “was crucified for us,” and denying the erroneous beliefs of the Ebionites [Jesus was merely a teacher, but not a Savior], the Sabellians [Jesus was only the current manifestation of God; i.e. Modalistic Monarchians] who rejected the Trinity, and the Pelagians [Jesus was only an example of righteousness, but not truly a Savior] who rejected the necessity of Jesus’ death for the forgiveness of sins)

— “and rose again on the third day according to the Scriptures, and ascended into the heavens, and sitteth on the right hand of the Father, and cometh again with glory to judge the living and dead, of whose kingdom there shall be no end.” (Teaching the bodily resurrection of Jesus Christ, and his ascension into Heaven to rule over his Kingdom, and rejecting the Docetists who taught that Jesus only “appeared to be like” God. Note the magisterial progression: “…rose again…ascended…sitteth…cometh again…”)

— “And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Life-giver, that proceedeth from the Father (Affirming the eternal procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father [this phrase was added in AD 381 at the 1st Council of Constantinople], and denying the erroneous teaching of the Sabellians that the Holy Spirit was only the “divine will” of the Father rather than the third member of the Trinity)

— (“and the Son”) [Lat. filioque] (The Filioque clause was formally added to the Nicene Creed at the Third Counsel of Toledo in AD 589. It must be acknowledged, however, that well-regarded Church Fathers such as Tertullian, Jerome, Ambrose, Augustine, and Cyril of Alexandria all affirmed that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father and the Son long before Toledo in AD 589. See John 14:26 and 15:26 for context)

— “who with Father and Son is worshipped together and glorified together, who spake by the prophets.” (Teaching that God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit are all worthy of worship, in contrast to the Sabellians [i.e. Modalistic Monarchians] who reject the doctrine of the Trinity) 

— “In one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church: We acknowledge one baptism unto remission of sins. We look for a resurrection of the dead, and the life of the age to come.” (Affirming the true spiritual unity of the Church of Jesus Christ even in times of intense persecution, against the sectarian practices of Montanism [i.e. the visible church must be a pure church] and the followers of Novatian of Rome [Lat. cathari = “the pure ones”] who would not allow any of the “lapsed” to ever rejoin the Church)  

(“The Nicene Creed” – the text is cited by Bettenson and Mauder, Documents of the Christian Church, 4th Edition, 27-28)

Its Relevance for Today: 

Dr. Mark A. Noll, a contemporary evangelical historian from Regent College, addresses the ongoing relevance of the Nicene Creed by stating, 

Dr. Mark A. Noll

“The Nicene Creed has remained for nearly seventeen centuries a secure foundation for the church’s theology, worship, and prayer. Not only does it succinctly summarize the facts of biblical revelation, but it also stands as a bulwark against the persistent human tendency to prefer logical deductions concerning what God must be like and how he must act to the lived realities of God’s self-disclosure. And it powerfully restates the realities of Christ’s divine nature, his incarnation as a human being, and the work of salvation he accomplishes for his people. The turning point in Christian history represented by the Nicene Creed was the church’s critical choice for the wisdom of God in preference to human wisdom. Theologically considered, no decision could ever be more important.”

— Mark Noll, Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, 59.

Certainly, the Christian Church should gratefully acknowledge the abundant blessings that have come from the hard-fought debates and thoughtful conclusions that are found in the Nicene Creed. The precise theological formulations contained in it have been recognized over time as settled doctrine. In other words, the affirmations contained in the Nicene Creed are an accurate summary of the teachings of Holy Scripture (i.e orthodoxy = “the right opinion”), and they are a tested means of measuring theological error (i.e. heterodoxy = “differing in opinion”). Over the course of a year it is profitable for all Christians to recite the Nicene Creed in our worship services and to study it in our classes, knowing that previous generations of Bible-believing Christians have clung to its affirmations as we must do as well. 

What actually happened at the Council of Nicaea? It would be difficult to find better resources than these three books that go into great detail about its actual proceedings–all are winners!

Resources for Further Study: 

Berkhof, Louis. The History of Christian Doctrines. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1937.

Bettenson, Henry and Chris Maunder, eds. Documents of the Christian Church. Fourth Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011. 

Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.

Boyle, Isaac. “A Historical View of the Council of Nice” in The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus. Grand Rapids, MI: Reprint, Baker Book House, 1992.

Brown, Harold O. J. Heresies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy from the Apostles to the Present. New York, NY: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1984. 

Cunningham, William. Historical Theology. Volume 1. First Published in 1862; Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1960.

Douglas, J. D., gen. ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

  • “Adoptianism” by Harold H. Rowdon
  • “Arianism” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
  • “Athanasian Creed” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
  • “Athanasius” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
  • “Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
  • “Constantinople, First Council of (381)” by G. T. D. Angel
  • “Constantine the Great” by David F. Wright
  • “Docetism” by G. W. Grogan
  • “Donatists” by David F. Wright
  • “Ebonites” by H. L. Ellison
  • “Eusebius of Caesarea” by J. G. G. Norman
  • “Eusebius of Nicomedia” by Peter Toon
  • “Gnosticism” by Edwin Yamauchi
  • “Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
  • “Holy Spirit” by Leon Morris
  • “Lapsi” by David F. Wright
  • “Marcion” by W. Ward Gasque
  • “Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
  • “Monarchianism” by Samual J. Mikolaski
  • “Monophysitism” by George Giacumakis, Jr.
  • “Monothelites” by H. D. McDonald
  • “Nicea, Council of (325)” by G. L. Carey
  • “Nicene Creed” by G. L. Carey
  • “Nestorianism, Nestorius” by Peter Toon
  • “Pelagianism” by David F. Wright
  • “Valentinus” by Clyde Curry Smith

Kelly, John N. D. Early Christian Doctrines. Second Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1958. 

Lane, Anthony N. S. A Concise History of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

Leith, John H. Creeds of the Churches: A Reader in Christian Doctrine from the Bible to the Present. Third Edition. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1982.

Morecraft III, Joseph C. 2,000 Years of Christian Theology. San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum, Inc., 2012.

Noll, Mark A. Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1997.  

Rushdoony, Rousas John. The Foundations of Social Order: Studies in the Creeds and Councils of the Early Church. Vallecito, CA: Ross House Books, 1968. 

Schaff, Philip. The Creeds of Christendom. 3 Volumes. Sixth Edition. Revised by David S. Schaff, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1998.

Seeberg, Reinhold. Text-Book of the History of Doctrines. Translated by Charles E. Hay. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1952.

Here are three additional volumes that analyze the Nicene Creed in much broader terms–(1) how it confronts damnable heresies, (2) how it solves political struggles, and (3) how it challenges Greek philosophical presuppositions.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved

Patrick and the Irish Wolfhounds

June 11, 2025 /
The deep verdant green of the Irish countryside is so breathtakingly beautiful!

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“The Lord is my helper; I will not fear; what can man do to me?” Hebrews 13:6

Sometimes a person’s life gets “interrupted” by an event that they did not expect. That certainly happened to Patrick (AD c.389-c.463). When he was just sixteen years old Patrick was suddenly kidnapped by Irish sea-raiders, taken away from his home in England, and sold as a slave. If that difficulty happened to you, you might think that God had somehow “abandoned” you. Patrick would learn, however, that the Lord is in control of all events and that even terrible things that we can’t fully explain are used for “good” in the Christian’s life. God promises in the Bible, “…we know that for those who love God all things work together for good” (Rom. 8:28). This means that we can trust God in the midst of our trials and tribulations. And so, what happened to Patrick now that he was forced to be a slave in Ireland? In God’s providence what “good” could possibly come from all of this? 

This flock of sheep is much like the ones that Patrick carefully shepherded on Skerry Hill

Here is what happened: Once Patrick was sold as a slave, his new master, Michlu, assigned him to work as a shepherd caring for the livestock. He was given a couple of Irish wolfhounds—huge and fierce dogs—to help protect the sheep, hogs, and cows from ravaging wolves. Patrick learned how to manage these dogs by speaking to them in Gaelic, the common language of the Irish people. The dogs learned to trust him, and he learned to trust them—they were a team in protecting the livestock from the wolves. The wolves were especially dangerous during the winter months when in hunger they would attack the livestock. Most times the shepherds were successful at protecting the livestock, but at other times the fierce wolves would be able to carry away the younger members of the flock. Patrick served as a shepherd for six long years. Nevertheless, he always dreamed of returning to his own family in England. One day, he came up with a plan and with the aide of a friend he set in motion his escape from captivity.  

This picture gives the reader some idea of the sheer size of an Irish Wolfhound!

Leaving in the middle of the night he made his way down to the seashore where he planned to flee from Ireland by ship. No one, though, was willing to take him! He noticed that one ship was transporting a cargo of Irish wolfhounds. The sailors found them to be completely unmanageable. Patrick volunteered to care for them. To demonstrate his abilities, he calmed the wild and restless dogs by speaking to them in Gaelic. He also urged the Captain to arrange for their feeding. The dogs calmed down under Patrick’s care and he was taken aboard as a welcome passenger on the ship. Initially he was transported to Spain, but then over time he made his way back to England. What joy it was to be back at home with his father and mother! 

Over the next several years he experienced a reoccurring dream—a voice would say in Gaelic, “Holy Boy, we beseech you to come and walk among us once more.” Patrick understood this to mean that God was calling him to return to Ireland—not to give himself up as a runaway slave, but to minister to the Irish people as a Missionary-Evangelist. After lots of study, prayer, and preparation the church leaders called him to that very task—to take the gospel to Ireland. When Patrick finally arrived in Ireland he was 42 years old (AD 432); this is what happened, 

“…the ship landed off the coast of Dublin. Dublin was not a great city then—it was merely a village. But it was the capital of the province of Wicklow, and it was ruled by a king named Dichu. Again the ship was anchored, and again Patrick and his crew were rowed ashore. “Let us walk to the top of the hill that I see a mile away,” Patrick said. “From there we can see all of this part of the country.” As they walked toward the hill, they saw a group of men waiting there. Then the silence of the morning was shattered by the angry growling of dogs. The sound struck terror in the hearts of Patrick’s companions. Four dogs rushed down the hill toward the defenseless men who carried no swords—merely pilgrim’s staffs.”

“Patrick stood there calmly while the others dropped to their knees in fright. Surely, they thought, these wild dogs would tear them to bits. The dogs—huge, fierce Irish wolfhounds—were snarling as they rushed toward Patrick and his group of frightened men. Then Patrick’s clear voice rang out. He talked to the dogs as he had once talked to the dogs which had helped him guard the swine on Skerry Hill. He talked to them as he had talked to the dogs on Captain Tigras’ ship. And the dogs, hearing the familiar commands in the language they understood, stopped snarling. When Patrick gave a sharp command, they halted. Patrick walked toward them, talking soothingly to them. The dogs dropped to the ground. They whimpered and crawled toward Patrick, and then they arose and licked his outstretched hand.”

A Celtic Cross–clearly symbolizes the sacrificial death of Christ and the compelling testimony of the four Gospels

“The men on the hill had watched all this in amazement. Among them was Dichu, the king, who had taught the dogs to kill his enemies. To Dichu, any strangers who landed on these shores were enemies. But instead of tearing these enemies to bits, the dogs were now allowing themselves to be patted on the head by the leader of this band of strangers. Dichu led his men down the hill. “Who are you?” he asked curiously. Patrick told him. He also told him why he had come to Ireland. “But don’t you know, Patrick,” Dichu said, “that many kings in Ireland have vowed to kill you if you are indeed the one spoken of in the prophecy?” Patrick nodded. “Of course I know that, but I have faith in God.” “Do you believe that your God can protect you against the swords of the Irish kings?” Dichu asked. Patrick smiled. “That is a small thing for God to do,” he said. “I know very little about your God,” Dichu admitted. “I should like to know more. Will you and your band stay with me awhile, and will you tell me of this God of yours?”

— Quentin Reynolds, The Life of Saint Patrick, 131-133

One artist’s depiction of Patrick

Over the next thirty years (AD 432-463) Patrick faithfully shared the gospel with the people of Ireland. Sadly, they were enslaved to idols (false gods) and to evil spirits (demons). The Lord Jesus slowly began to deliver them from their unbelief, forgiving their sins, and giving them new life in Christ. One biographer notes that Patrick was busy “…sowing belief until he brought all the Ulstermen by the net of the gospel to the harbor of life.” In God’s wonderful providence all of the trials and tribulations of Patrick’s life actually equipped him for service as a Missionary-Evangelist to the Irish people. This outcome was the “good” that God had prepared him for. Due to his bold and clear preaching multitudes of Irish people professed their faith in Christ, thousands of baptisms took place, and many churches were established throughout the land. In short, the gospel message went forward in Ireland with great power!

Even though this particular Irish Celtic Church lays in ruins–the Christian faith lives on in Ireland! Jesus declared, “…the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.” (Matt. 16:18b)

Resources for Further Study:

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History: An Illustrated Account of 20 Centuries of Christ’s Power. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980. 

Marshall, Catharine T. “Patrick: Missionary to the Irish” in Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Edited by John D. Woodbridge. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

Neill, Stephen. A History of Christian Missions. Second Edition. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1986.

Olsen, Ted. Christianity and the Celts. Downers Grove, Il: InterVarsity Press, 2003 

Reynolds, Quentin. The Life of Saint Patrick. In the “Landmark Series.” New York, NY: Random House Publishers, 1955.

Swanson, Kevin, ed. “Patrick’s Confessions and Breastplate” in Great Christian Classics: Five Remarkable Narratives of the Faith. Parker, CO: Generations with Vision, 2010. 

Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved

The Day Martin Luther was Kidnapped!

April 28, 2025 /
Martin Luther makes his bold defense before Charles 5th and the Papal legate at Worms

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“Our God is a refuge and a strength, a very present help in trouble.” Psalm 46:1

Over five hundred years ago, Martin Luther was ordered by Charles 5th, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, to travel to Worms, Germany to make his defense. He was given a promise of “safe conduct” to and from the gathering (or Diet). His friends reminded him, though, of how John Huss had been given a similar promise over a hundred years before, but was betrayed and lost his life (1417). With that ominous threat in mind Luther had to be careful as he traveled the long road to Worms in his oxen-drawn carriage. He felt fear at the prospect of dying in the flames while chained to a stake. But he also felt that it would be a privilege to die for the sake of his Lord Jesus Christ. Once he arrived at Worms (on April 16, 1521), it was demanded that Luther reject all of his books and recant the truths he had discovered from his studies in the Bible. Under the extreme pressure of the moment, he asked for a day to think it over. This was granted. After spending an anguished night of prayer and reflection in a high tower he refused to recant and the next morning he made the following courageous speech:

Emperor Charles 5th

“Since Your Majesty and your lordships desire a simple reply, I will answer without horns and without teeth. Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason—I do not accept the authority of popes or councils, for they have contradicted each other—my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. May God help me, Amen.”

— Roland Bainton, Here I Stand, 144

Luther was abruptly dismissed from the gathering by the emperor, and it appeared that he had emerged victorious from the Diet of Worms. He began his travel home to Wittenberg on April 26, 1521 trusting that he would be able to return to his studies and to his eager students. Unknown to Luther, however, ten days after he departed the emperor declared him to be a criminal and a heretic (May 6, 1521). He ordered that Luther be captured and held for future judgment. Luther’s friends, though, had a different plan. Anticipating what might happen, they schemed to get him away from all of his enemies to a place of safety and thereby preserve his life. The famous historian of the Reformation, Dr. J. H. Merle D’Aubigne, gives us the details of what happened on that fateful day:

“On the following day he resumed his journey, accompanied by Amsdorf and his brother James. In these lonely spots the reformer’s lot was to be decided. They were passing along the forest of Thuringia, on the road to Waltershausen, As the carriage was in a hollow part of the road…a sudden noise was heard, and at that moment five horsemen, masked and in complete armor, rushed upon the travelers. Luther’s brother, as soon as he perceived the assailants, leapt from the vehicle, and ran off at full speed without uttering a word. The driver was for defending himself. “Stop!” cried one of the assailants in a stern voice, and rushing upon him threw him to the ground. A second man in a mask seized Amsdorf, and prevented him from coming near. Meanwhile the three other horsemen laid hold of Luther, keeping the most profound silence. They pulled him violently from the carriage, threw a horseman’s cloak upon his shoulders and placed him on a led horse. Then the other two quitted Amsdorf and the driver, and the whole leapt into their saddles. The hat of one of them fell off, but they did not even stop to lift it, and in a twinkling disappeared in the dark forest with their prisoner. They at first took the road to Broderode; but they soon retraced their steps by a different road, and, without quitting the forest, made turnings and windings in all directions, in order to deceive those who might attempt to follow their track…nightfall having made it impossible to follow their track, the party carrying off Luther took a new direction, and about an hour before midnight arrived at the foot of a mountain. The horses climbed slowly to its summit, on which stood an old fortress, surrounded on all sides, except that of the entrance, by the black forests which cover the mountains of Thuringia. To this elevated and isolated castle, named the Wartburg…was Luther conducted.”

— D’Aubigne, The History of the Reformation, Book VII, 214

News of Luther’s kidnapping quickly spread throughout the countryside. Some people were delighted, while others responded with anguished feelings of grief and sorrow. They did not know if Martin Luther was dead or alive! But rather than being captured by his enemies, Luther had actually been kidnapped by his friends! The supportive German Prince, Frederick of Saxony, arranged for Luther’s “kidnapping” by his trustworthy knights in order to protect him from the vengeful Roman Catholic authorities. 

The Wartburg–Martin Luther referred to this remote mountain refuge as “My Patmos”
Luther as “Junker George”

For almost a year Luther lay hidden in “The Wartburg” under the false name, Junker George (or “George the Knight”). During this time he grew a beard and carried a large sword to complete the disguise. Rather than remain idle, or feel sorry for himself, he used this time of concealment well and wrote a large number of pamphlets defending the doctrines he had discovered in the Bible. Moreover, he began work on translating the entire New Testament into German (completed in 1522). Finally, he wrote many stirring hymns of which “A Mighty Fortress is our God” is the best known. It has been reported that while watching the smoke rise from many peasant campfires in the valley far below, Luther became discouraged by intense feelings of loneliness and despair. A fresh wind, though, suddenly arose and blew all the smoke away. He was greatly encouraged by this sight and rejoiced that the Lord can remove our own fears and doubts as easily as the wind can blow away smoke. Indeed, “Our God is a refuge and a strength, a very present help in trouble.” Psalm 46:1

Resources for Further Study: 

Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1950.

D’Aubigne, J. H. Merle. The History of the Reformation. Originally Published in 1872; Powder Spring, GA: Powder Springs Press, Facsimile Edition, 2008. 

Hildebrand, Hans J., ed. The Reformation: A Narrative History. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, 1964. 

Kittleson, James M. Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and his Career. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1986.

Rupp, Gordon. Luther’s Progress to the Diet of Worms 1521. London, England: SCM Press Ltd., 1951. 

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved

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