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Ancient Heretics and Sectarians (Part 1)

March 29, 2025 / / 0 Comments

“Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep’s clothing but inwardly are ravenous wolves.” Mathew 7:15

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Introduction: 

What has caused the rise of heresies, heretics, and the many sectarians who have twisted Scriptural doctrines related to the person of Jesus Christ? This is certainly a valid question to ask and to ponder. Sadly, the true Church has been plagued by heresies, heretics, and sectarians ever since Ascension of Jesus Christ into heaven (Acts 1:9-11). The sudden explosion of erroneous beliefs about Jesus Christ seems to defy explanation! Cyprian (AD c.200-258), however, the wise bishop of Carthage and no stranger to false doctrines, answered this important question in the following way, 

Cyprian (AD c.200-258), the Bishop of Carthage

“We must guard against wily trickery and subtle deceit no less than open and obvious perils. And could anything more subtle and wily have been devised than this? The enemy has been exposed and laid low by the coming of Christ, light came to the nations, the sun of salvation shined to save mankind, so that the deaf received the hearing of spiritual grace, the blind opened their eyes to the Lord, the weak recovered strength in eternal health, the lame ran to church, the dumb prayed aloud. Yet, when he saw the idols abandoned and his seats and temples deserted through the host of believers, our enemy thought of a new trick, to deceive the unwary under cover of the name Christian. He invented heresies and schisms to undermine faith, pervert truth, and break unity. Unable to keep us in the dark ways of former error, he draws us into a new maze of deceit. He snatches men away from the Church itself and, just when they think they have drawn near to the light and escaped the night of the world, he plunges them unawares into a new darkness. Though they do not stand by the gospel and discipline and law of Christ, they call themselves Christians. Though they are walking in darkness, they think they are in the light, through the deceitful flattery of the adversary who, as the Apostle said, transforms himself into an angel of light and adorns his ministers as ministers of righteousness who call night day, death salvation, despair hope, perfidy faith, antichrist Christ, cunningly to frustrate truth by their lying show of truth. That is what happens, my brothers, when we do not return to the fount of truth, when we are not looking to the head and keeping the doctrine taught from heaven.”

— Cyprian, The Unity of the Catholic Church, art. 3; “Early Latin Theology” in The Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5.

The Apostle Peter portrays Satan as a “roaring lion”

This candid and compelling analysis by Cyprian exposes the “wily trickery and subtle deceit” of the enemy. Defeated at the Cross, the enemy “thought of a new trick, to deceive the unwary under cover of the name Christian.” And so it is, heresies, heretics, and sectarians have risen up confusing true Christians, and entangling those individuals “into a new maze of deceit.” As Jesus stated, they are “ravenous wolves” who have disguised themselves “in sheep’s clothing” (Matt. 7:15). The Apostle Peter warns, “Be sober-minded; be watchful. Your adversary the devil prowls around like a roaring lion, seeking someone to devour. Resist him, firm in your faith” (1 Pet. 5:8-9a). Therefore, every Christian should make it their goal to know the essential doctrines delivered from Christ and the Apostles so well that erroneous beliefs can be easily spotted and foiled. 

A Glossary of Key Words: 

— Heresy (Gk. hairesis = lit. “able to choose”; a peculiar opinion, an unorthodox doctrine, a heresy; heresiarch = a founder or leader of a heretical group)

— Orthodox (Gk. orthodoxia = lit. “right opinion”; meaning right belief in contrast to heresy or heterodoxy)

— Heterodox (Gk. heterodoxia = lit. “different opinion”; not conforming to orthodox standards or beliefs in religion)

— Apostasy (Gk. apostosia = the formal disaffiliation of, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person)

— Sectarian (Lat. secta = “party, school, faction” and sectarius = “belonging or pertaining to a schismatic sect”; excessive attachment to a particular sect or party, especially in religion)

The Ancient Heretics and Sectarians: 

Below are some of the major heresies, heretics and sectarians who greatly troubled the Christian Church from its beginnings up to the 300’s: 

The Ebionites (1st Century-on) — In summary, the Ebionites regarded Jesus as a man upon whom the Spirit of God rested in its fulness. In many ways the Ebonites manifested a view of salvation similar to the Judaizers criticized by Paul in Galatians (e.g. Faith in Jesus + Obedience to the Law = Salvation). H. L. Ellison explains, “The Ebionites exalted the Law, though they considered it contained false pericopes, rejected the Pauline epistles, and regarded Jesus as the son of Joseph and Mary, but elected Son of God at his baptism when he was united with the eternal Christ, who is higher than the archangels, but not divine. This Christ appeared in various figures from Adam on. His work was that of a teacher rather than savior…They…gradually dwindled away, their last remnants being swept away by the Muslim conquest of Syria.” (Ellison, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 326). The Apostle Peter boldly refutes this heresy by declaring, “He himself bore our sins in his body on a tree, that we might die to sin and live to righteousness. By his wounds you have been healed” (1 Pet. 2:24).

Docetism (1st Century-on) — (Gk. dokew = “to seem like”). In other words, Christ only “seemed like” a man. G. W. Grogan describes this heresy in the following manner: “In the history of Christian theology this is the view that Jesus Christ was not a real man, but simply appeared so. This undermines not only the Incarnation, but also the Atonement and Resurrection…The origins of Docetism are not biblical, but Hellenistic and oriental, and are due to the idea that matter is essentially evil and to a particular construction of the doctrine of divine impassibility. Alexandria was a melting-pot of Hellenistic and oriental ideas, and the home of some of the greatest Gnostic teachers.” (Grogan, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 305). For a sharp refutation of this heresy from the New Testament see the following verses: Jn. 1:14, 18; John 8:56-59; Col. 2:9, and Heb. 1:1-3, 8; 2:14-18.

Paul of Samosata (AD d.272)

Adoptianism (1st Century-on) — This is the heretical teaching that Jesus the “Man,” became Jesus the “Christ” at his baptism (Matt. 3:13-17). It has many variations but the most common view teaches that the “Christ” who joined with Jesus at his baptism abruptly left Jesus at the Cross. Essentially, Jesus died as a mere “Man” so that his saving work on the Cross is completely denied. The bodily resurrection of Jesus is also denied by this heresy. Others held that the “Christ” remained with Jesus and allowed him to be resurrected from the dead. Harold H. Rowden describes Adoptianism as, “The view that Jesus was a man of blameless life who became the adoptive Son of God. In the early centuries some maintained that the divine Spirit descended upon Jesus—a man of perfect virtue, sometimes granted to have been born of a virgin—at His baptism, and that He was deified after His resurrection. A form of Adoptianist theology was expounded by Dynamic Monarchians, e.g., Theodotus and Paul of Samosata.” (Rowden, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 13). Jesus himself destroys this false narrative by declaring, “‘I am the Alpha and the Omega,’ says the Lord God, ‘who is and who was and who is to come, the Almighty’” (Rev. 1:8).

The Parthenon in Athens, Greece stands as an enduring monument to the ancient Gnostic mystery religions

Gnosticism — This movement represents Greek philosophy at its highest level. The Gnostics (Gk. gnosis = knowledge) maintained that only initiates who paid a fee to the priests of the Greek “mystery religions” could understand the truth about spiritual matters. The essential idea of Gnosticism was that all “flesh” (Gk. sarx) was evil, and that all “spirit” (Gk. pneuma) was righteous. Therefore, a genuine “seeker” of spiritual truth could find the deep realities of life through a series of personal experiences, either by self-indulgence in sensuality (Hedonism), or by self-denial from all pleasure (Asceticism). It was the “personal experience” of the “secret knowledge” that was the measure of all reality to the devotee of Gnosticism. Applied to Christianity, Gnosticism doubted the full deity of Jesus Christ, and at other times doubted the full humanity of Jesus Christ. The Apostle John writes rebuttals against both errors—the denial of Jesus Christ’s deity (cf. 1 John 2:22), and the denial of Jesus Christ’s humanity (cf. 1 John 4:2-3). Either way, the views of the Gnostic Christians can only be described as heresy. John certainly had the Gnostics in mind when he wrote John 1:1, and 1:14-18. The Greek term “Word” (Gk. Logos) is a Gnostic term that represents an impersonal idea that bridges the gap between God and humanity. John co-opted this term, “the Word,” by declaring that “the Word became flesh and dwelt among us.” Such a bold proclamation would be inconceivable to the serious Gnostic! This, however, was divine truth to the Christian believer. The Apostle John, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, “took every thought captive” by strategically utilizing the very terms of Gnosticism and giving them a Christian meaning (cf. 2 Cor. 10:3-6). Moreover, the Apostle Paul warns, “See to it that no one takes you captive by philosophy and empty deceit, according to human tradition, according to the elemental spirits of the world, and not according to Christ” (Col. 2:8). 

The Heretic Marcion was labled “the first-born of Satan” by Polycarp, the Bishop of Smyrna

Marcion (AD 85-160) — A Roman Presbyter and in time declared to be a heretic. He was raised in Sinope on the Black Sea, but traveled to Rome and settled there in the 140’s. He stressed that the god of the Old Testament was somewhat “evil” and the God of the New Testament was perfectly “good.” Marcion also rejected the full humanity of Jesus, preferring instead to think of Jesus as only appearing to be like a man (i.e Docetism). Hence, Marcion rejected the birth narratives of the gospels in Matthew and Luke, and claimed that Jesus appeared as a fully-grown man in the fifteenth year of Tiberius. For these heresies Marcion was excommunicated from the church of Rome in AD 144. W. Ward Gasque wrote, “Marcion stressed the radical nature of Christianity vis-a-vis Judaism. In his theology there existed a total discontinuity between the OT and the NT, between Israel and the church, and even between the god of the OT and the Father of Jesus. Jesus came to reveal the true God, who was totally unknown up to the Incarnation. The god of the OT, the demiurge, an inferior being who created the material world and ruled over it, was not exactly an evil being, but he was not good in the same sense as the God and Father of Jesus, a God of love and grace” (Gasque, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 629-630). In approximately AD 150 Marcion set forth a canon of approved writings for his followers which was in contrast to the widely-accepted books of the New Testament. This led later to efforts by the historic-orthodox Church to clearly set forth the twenty-seven books of the New Testament as an officially approved list (i.e a “Canon”) at the Council of Hippo (AD 393) and later at the Council of Carthage (AD 397). Polycarp the bishop of Smyrna steadfastly referred to Marcion as “The first-born of Satan,” and both Tertullian (Against Marcion) and Irenaeus (Against Heresies) wrote extensive treatises against Marcion and his heretical notions. By the end of the second century Marcion’s movement lost its strength and it ultimately disappeared. The Apostle Paul instructed the churches to, “…avoid foolish controversies, genealogies, dissensions, and quarrels about the law, for they are unprofitable and worthless. As for a person who stirs up division, after warning him once and then twice, have nothing more to do with him, knowing that such a person is warped and sinful; he is self-condemned” (Tit. 3:9-10).

The ecstatic visions of female prophetesses was a key feature in Montanist beliefs

Montanus (he started prophesying in AD 157) — Montanus was a self-proclaimed prophet from Phrygia who advocated a life of rigid asceticism. He associated with two prophetesses by the name of Maximilla and Priscilla. All three prophets claimed to be mouth-pieces of the Paraclete (Gk. paracletes, or the Holy Spirit) and brought forth the New Prophecy. They also claimed that they could forgive sins. Montanus had a very popular following, but eventually ran into trouble with the church authorities and was excommunicated. At the Synod of Iconium in AD 230 it was ruled that Monanist baptism was not valid. In many ways, Montanus could be classified as a fanatic, or sectarian, rather than a heretic; although it must be admitted that he was excommunicated from the true Church. His teachings drew many away from Christ to more of an “elitist mentality” that put his followers over and above other Christians. Clearly, this was not the teaching of Jesus Christ who urged his disciples to a life of humility and service to others (John 13:12-16). Central to Montanist doctrine was the imminency of Christ’s Return, the forbidding of remarriage (one marriage only), the keeping of regular fasts, withdrawal from the world, and being willing to die as a martyr. The saying of “Do not hope to die in bed…but as a martyr” was typical of the high commitment to self-denial practiced by his followers. Tertullian of Carthage was one of the more distinguished followers of Montanism. Overtime, however, Tertullian reformed the excesses of Montanism, so much so that the entire movement became known as Tertullianism. The Apostle Paul warns, “But even if we or an angel from heaven should preach to you a gospel contrary to the one we preached to you, let him be accursed” (Col. 1:8). 

Novatian of Rome (AD c.200-d. 258)

Novatian (c.200-d.258) — Novatian founded a small puritanical sect in Rome which took a hard line against those who had lapsed under persecution. The Novatianists prided themselves on being the “pure ones” (Lat. cathari) and therefore did not associate with many other Christians, especially those who had forsaken Christ during the persecutions (Lat. lapsi). In this way they were schismatic. H. D. McDonald writes, “Novatian demanded that the Christians who had apostatized during the Decian persecutions (AD 249-250) should not be welcomed back into the fellowship of the church. Novatian’s group formed themselves into their own party, under strict discipline. This separatist movement continued for many centuries. Their orthodoxy was never in doubt.” (McDonald, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 717). Novation was a gifted theologian who was known for his writings in favor of the Trinity. He was strongly orthodox in theology, but extremely puritanical in practice. As a result, the Novatianists formed their own churches and separated from churches they considered to be “impure.” Novatian died as a martyr during the Valerian persecution in AD 258. The Apostle Paul exhorts, “Therefore let no one pass judgement on you in questions of food and drink, or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath. These are a shadow of the things to come, but the substance belongs to Christ” (Col. 2:16-17). 

Mani led many astray into his self-styled and syncretistic religion. Eventually, his favor with the Persian King evaporated and he was condemned and executed. Augustine was able to escape this “dark alley of deceit” and come to faith in Jesus Christ.

Mani (AD c.216-277) — Mani was the founder and leader of the group called the Manichaeans. Mani lived in Babylonia, but traveled extensively throughout Persia, India, and the Roman Empire once he found favor with the Persian King. His peculiar doctrines were a mixture of Persian religions, astrology, and some elements of biblical Christianity. He asserted that Jesus was “the Brilliant Light,” but he denied Jesus’ full deity. Asceticism was a hallmark of this group. J. N. Birdsall comments about Manichaean beliefs with this description, “The doctrine though claimed as a system is highly mythological. Two principles, Light and Dark, God and Matter, are eternal. The invasion of the Light led to the saving expedition of the Primeval Man, some of whose substance remained imprisoned in matter after his return. The creation of sun, moon, stars, and plant life was part of a plan to redeem this imprisoned Light. The appearance of Adam was a counterplot to retain Light imprisoned, through reproduction: “Jesus the Brilliant Light” redeemed him by a vision. The Jesus of the gospels is but an instance of the suffering of imprisoned Light in matter. The religious practice of Mani’s followers (among whom the “elect” or “righteous” ate no meat and abstained from sexual life) was an ascetic means of continuing the process of gradual liberation.” (Birdsall, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 624-625). In some ways, the Manichaeans are forerunners of the modern-day Bahai movement which has a similar set of beliefs. Augustine spent many years as a follower of the teachings of Mani before he finally came to a saving knowledge of Jesus Christ. In particular, he could never reconcile the dualistic nature of Light and Dark (i.e. Good and Evil). He slowly came to realize from his study of the Holy Scriptures that God is entirely good and righteous all together (1 Jn. 1:5; Jam. 1:13-15), that the “problem with evil” (Lat. theodicy) is thoroughly explained by the Fall of Adam and Eve (Gen. 3:1-24), and that the passing of the sin nature (the Imputation of Sins) to all of their descendants is a necessary consequence of the Fall (Rom. 5:12-19). Every human being inherits the sin nature (Original Sin) of Adam and Even, and each person is responsible for their own sins (Rom. 1:18-20; Eph. 2:1-3). The Prophets and the Apostles declare that it is only by the gracious substitutionary work of Jesus Christ on the Cross that a person can be delivered from the penalty and power of sin (Isa. 53:4-6; Rom. 3:23-26; Eph. 2:4-10; Tit. 3:4-7; 1 Pet. 2:24-25; 1 Jn. 1:7 and 2:1-2).

________________________________________

Part 2 of “Ancient Heretics and Sectarians” is under preparation and will cover heresies from AD 300 up to AD 451 (the Council of Chalcedon).

Resources for Further Study: 

These three valuable books were a great help to me in navigating through the complicated maze of ancient heresies, heretics, and sectarians.

Bettenson, Henry and Chris Maunder, eds. Documents of the Christian Church. Fourth Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011. 

Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.

Brown, Harold O. J. Heresies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy from the Apostles to the Present. New York, NY: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1984. 

Christy-Murray, David. A History of Heresy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1976. 

Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

  • “Adoptianism” by Harold H. Rowdon
  • “Apostasy” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
  • “Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
  • “Cyprian” by David F. Wright
  • “Docetism” by G. W. Grogan
  • “Ebonites” by H. L. Ellison
  • “Gnosticism” by Edwin Yamauchi
  • “Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
  • “Irenaeus” by David F. Wright
  • “Jesus Christ” by F. F. Bruce
  • “Justin Martyr” by G. L. Carey
  • “Lapsi” by David F. Wright
  • “Manichaeism” by J. N. Birdsall
  • “Marcion” by W. Ward Gasque
  • “Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
  • “Monarchianism” by Samual J. Mikolaski
  • “Montanism” by H. D. McDonald
  • “Novatus” by J. G. G. Norman
  • “Orthodoxy” by Keith J. Hardman
  • “Tertullian” by David F. Wright

Dowley, Tim. The History of Christianity: A Lion Handbook. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishing, 1990. 

Greenslade, Stanley L., ed. Early Latin Theology: Selections From Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose and Jerome. Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1956.

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Kelly, John N. D. Early Christian Doctrines. Second Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1958. 

Lane, Anthony N. S. A Concise History of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006. 

Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

  • “John and the End of the Apostolic Age” by Leon Morris
  • “Paul and the Missionary Enterprise” by F. F. Bruce
  • “Cyprian of Carthage” by Michael A. Smith
  • “Irenaeus: Adversary of the Gnostics” by Everett Ferguson
  • “Justin Martyr: Defender of the Faith” by Edwin M. Yamauchi
  • “Tertullian and Western Theology” by Gerald L. Bray

Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Bloomington, IN: Warhorn Media, Reprint, 2014.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved

A Night Escape: John Calvin Flees Paris

February 7, 2025 /
The University of Paris–founded in AD 1150

“And we know that all things work together for good to those who love God, to those who are the called according to His purpose.” Romans 8:28

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

John Calvin as a young man (c. 1533)

In his twenty-third year John Calvin (1509-1564) experienced a “sudden conversion” (c.1532). Through the work of the Holy Spirit he came to understand the depth of his own sin, and his need for a Savior. In short, the Lord changed his heart and he was born again (cf. John 3:5; Titus 3:4-7). He had become a disciple of Jesus Christ, and his everyday practices, his purpose in life, and his future plans were all thoroughly transformed by the Lord. He became a regular attender at an underground church that had secretly begun to assemble for worship in Paris. He quietly led Bible studies and sought to disciple new believers. During the early days of the French Reformation it was dangerous to profess faith in Jesus Christ and to attend an illegal church. Only participation in the Roman Catholic Church was permitted; all other church services and religious gatherings were prohibited.

Pierre Robert Olivetan–John Calvin’s older cousin

At that time Calvin had just finished his law degree at the University of Orleans. Due to his conversion, however, he determined to change his focus from law to studying theology at the University of Paris. He hoped to become a teacher of the Bible and a theological writer for the cause of Jesus Christ. While at the University, he renewed his friendship with a number of old friends from his hometown of Noyon. He also reconnected with his older cousin, Pierre Robert Olivetan (c.1506-1538) who would translate the Bible into French (1535). Calvin would write the Preface to the translation. In particular, he became a close companion of Nicholas Cop, who was the older brother of his friend Michel Cop. Nicholas Cop had the unique privilege of being selected by Francis I, the King of France, to become the Rector of the University of Paris. In this prestigious role he served as a leader of all the students and all the faculties of the colleges that made up the University. 

On All Saint’s Day, November 1, 1533, Nicholas Cop was required to give an address, or a sermon, to the assembled faculty, students, and the entire religious community. His sermon was based on Matthew 5:3, “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.” In it he contrasted the righteousness of keeping the law, which man cannot fulfill, with the saving merits of Jesus Christ. He also encouraged personal study of the Bible and the application of its lessons to all of life. This was more than the Roman Catholic clergy at the Cathedral School of the Sorbonne could tolerate, and they rose-up in anger charging him with “Heresy!” They also brought charges before the French Parliament. Warned of his imminent arrest, Nicholas Cop fled the city of Paris for fear of his life. Unable to apprehend Cop, the religious authorities began searching about for anyone else who might have been associated with Cop and the Protestant movement. It became known through various sources that Calvin had assisted in writing the sermon given by Cop in the University Chapel. As a result, they pursued him so that he could be arrested, tried, and imprisoned.

One artist’s rendition of John Calvin escaping from Paris disguised as a vine-dresser

Late one evening the police came to Calvin’s lodgings to seize him. As they were pounding at the door his friends distracted the authorities with conversation. In God’s providence, Calvin was able to escape out the second-story window while a roommate lowered him down on bed sheets that were tied together into a rope. Once the police came into his room, they found a manuscript of Cop’s sermon in Calvin’s own handwriting. This confirmed their suspicion that Calvin was involved with the writing of Cop’s sermon. He now was a fugitive whose name was known to the religious authorities. His lot was permanently cast, and from this point on he was identified as a prominent leader within the Protestant Reformation. 

Margaret of Navarre

Calvin fled into the night in his bedclothes and escaped the next morning through the city gates dressed in the garment of a vine-dresser. Later he sought refuge from Margaret of Navarre (1492-1549), the King’s sister, who was sympathetic to the Protestant cause. The timid and mild-mannered John Calvin could no longer remain in the shadows. Although this was a very difficult time, God used all of these circumstances to further shape his character and to strengthen his courage. In time, he would become one of the foremost leaders of the Protestant Reformation. Indeed, “all things worked together for good” in his life—even those events that were frightening and greatly troublesome. Soli Deo Gloria! May God be praised! 

An Addendum: Emmauel Stickelberger, the preeminent biographer of Calvin, notes, “Some, not all, among the more recent students of Calvin question the Reformer’s authorship of the Rectorial address of Cop, and therefore also Calvin’s flight. Their reasons are not convincing. Calvin’s contemporary and successor, Theodore Beza, has reported both incidents as facts in his, the oldest, Calvin biography. On the MS. fragment of the address by Cop which the Geneva Library guards, there stand the words written by an old hand, “Haec Johannes Calvinus propria manu decripsit, et es auctor.” Doumergue, who is over-accurate, has not the slightest doubt (Vol. 1, pp. 331f.) Beza describes this incident in detail in his Vita Calvini.” (See: Stickelberger, Calvin: A Life, Note 7 and 8, 155-156)

The entire text of the inflammatory sermon given by Nicholas Cop is included as an Appendix in the 1536 Edition of the Institutes; also here are two of my favorite biographies of John Calvin

Resources for Further Study: 

Beza, Theodore. The Life of John Calvin: A Modern Translation of the Classic. Darlington, England: Evangelical Press, 1997.

Carr, Simonetta. John Calvin: Christian Biographies for Young Readers. Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2008. 

d’Aubigne, Merle J. H. The History of the Reformation in the Time of Calvin. Four Volumes. New York, NY: Robert Carter and Sons, 1863; Harrisonburg, VA: Sprinkle Publications, Reprint, 2000.

Stickelberger, Emanuel. Calvin: A Life. Translated by David Georg Gelzer. London, England: James Clarke & Company, 1959.

Van Halsema, Thea. This Was John Calvin. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing Company, 1959.

Vollmer, Philip; with contributions by J. I. Good, and Joseph C. Morecraft, III. John Calvin: Man of the Millennium. Edited by Wesley Strackbein. San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum, Inc, 2008.

Walker, Williston. John Calvin: Organizer of Reformed Protestantism. New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904. Reprint, New York: Schocken Books, 1969. 

Here are three books that would be suitable for children and young adults–each one includes the story of Calvin’s escape from Paris

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved

Ten Waves of Persecution by the Romans Against the Christians (AD 64-313)

January 15, 2025 /

“For they did not love the present world but the one who died on our behalf and was raised by God for our sakes.” Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Why did the Romans persecute the Christians? At first the Romans merely saw the Christians as a subset of Judaism and therefore they were not persecuted by the Romans. After the dispersion of Jews from Israel and at the conclusion of the Roman-Jewish War (AD 66-74), Christians no longer enjoyed this legal protection and they became a target of the state. Their refusal to offer worship to Caesar earned them the title of “Atheists” since they would not acknowledge that Caesar was “Lord.” Moreover, their practice of eating the “body” and drinking the “blood” of Christ in the Lord’s Supper became an offense to the Romans. They falsely accused Christians of “cannibalism.” And so, what exactly was the policy of the Roman government? Consider this letter of inquiry from the Roman provincial governor of Bithynia, Pliny the Younger (AD 62-c.113) who sought advice from the Roman Emperor Trajan on how to treat Christians. He asks,  

Pliny the Younger

It is my rule, Sire, to refer to you in matters where I am uncertain. For who can better direct my hesitation or instruct my ignorance? I was never present at any trial of Christians; therefore I do not know what are the customary penalties or investigations, and what limits are observed…this is the course that I adopted in the case of those brought before me as Christians. I ask them if they are Christians. If they admit it I repeat the question a second and a third time, threatening capital punishment; if they persist I sentence them to death. For I do not doubt that, whatever kind of crime it may be to which they have confessed, their pertinacity and inflexible obstinacy should certainly be punished. There were others who displayed a like madness and who I reserved to be sent to Rome, since they were Roman citizens…An anonymous pamphlet was issued, containing many names. All who denied that they were or had been Christians I considered should be discharged, because they called upon the gods at my dictation and did reverence, with incense and wine, to your image which I had ordered to be brought forward for this purpose, together with the statues of the deities; and especially because they cursed Christ, a thing which, it is said genuine Christians cannot be induced to do.

— Pliny the Younger, Epistolae ad Trajan X.96; cited in Bettenson and Maunder, eds., Documents of the Christian Church, 3-4

The Emperor replied with the following advice: 

Emperor Trajan

You have adopted the proper course, my dear Pliny, in examining into the cases of those who have been denounced to you as Christians, for no hard and fast rule can be laid down to meet a question of such wide extent. The Christians are not to be hunted out; if they are brought before you and the offense is proved, they are to be punished, but with this reservation—that if any one denies that he is a Christian and makes it clear that he is not, by offering prayers to our deities, then he is to be pardoned because of his recantation, however suspicious his past conduct may have been. But pamphlets published anonymously must not carry any weight whatever, no matter what the charge may be, for they are not only a precedent of the very worst type, but they are not in consonance with the spirit of our age.

— Trajan to Pliny, Epistolae ad Trajan X.97; cited in Bettenson and Maunder, eds,, Documents of the Christian Church, 5

This revealing correspondence demonstrates how the Romans gave Christians an opportunity to recant from their worship of Jesus Christ, by acknowledging “Caesar is Lord.” If they did not then they would suffer the consequences. As would be expected, many Christians refused to recant and thereby they went to their deaths. Such a rejection of Jesus Christ was unthinkable to them. Hence, the persecution and martyrdom of Christians increased under Roman rule. 

There were, however, others within the church who under pressure rejected Jesus Christ in order to spare their own lives. This situation produced an awkward crisis within the Christian church, and that was how to relate those who had given way to the Romans. Should those who denied the faith be readmitted to the church once the threat of persecution had diminished, or not? Over time three basic responses emerged: (1) to graciously readmit all of those who had previously rejected Jesus Christ; (2) to only readmit those who had rejected Jesus Christ upon their private and public repentance; or (3) to steadfastly refuse to readmit those who had previously rejected Jesus Christ since they could not be trusted. This crisis became a struggle between those who argued for a gracious response and those who argued for maintaining the purity of the church. 

Why were Christians willing to endure persecution and martyrdom? Here are four reasons based on Scripture as to why Christians were willing to go to their deaths for the sake of Jesus Christ: 

  1. They had personally experienced a changed life and could not conceive of living as they had formerly lived. (See: “For me to live is Christ and to die is gain” Phil. 1:21)
  2. They had witnessed the transformation of the lives of others who formed the true church, of which they were a part. (See: “For just the body is one and has many members, and all the members of the body though many, are one body, so it is with Christ. For in one Spirit we were all baptized into one body—Jews or Greeks, slaves or free—and all were made to drink of one Spirit.” 1 Cor. 12:12-13 And see: “Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed away; behold the new has come.” 2 Cor. 5:17) 
  3. They firmly believed that if they through death became “absent from the body,” they would surely be “present with the Lord.” (See: “So we are always of good courage. We know that while we are at home in the body we are away from the Lord, for we walk by faith, not by sight. Yes, we are of good courage, and we would rather be away from the body and at home with the Lord. So whether we are at home or away, we make it our aim to please him.” 2 Cor. 5:6-9)
  4. They resolutely believed that the Father had demonstrated His power through the birth, life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Hence, they trusted they too would be resurrected unto life following their death. (See: Jesus said, “I am the resurrection and the life. Whoever believes in me, though he die, yet shall he live…” John 11:25) 

Hence, we see that Christians have a foundation of trust in God that allows them to be persecuted and martyred. Nowhere in the Bible are Christians encouraged to seek after persecution and martyrdom—in some sort of self-fulfilling prophecy. Yet, they have been given spiritual resources that enable them to face it with courage. 

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Listed below are the “Ten Waves of Persecution” which were directed against Christians by the Romans. Note—many thousands of unnamed Christians died at the hands of the Romans. Only those notable individuals whose suffering and martyrdom were preserved in ancient literature are listed here. Many lesser known Christians suffered confiscation of their property, arrest, trial, imprisonment, torture, and death. They suffered for Jesus’ sake (Matt. 5:10-12). 

The Persecution of Christians by Nero
  • The First Persecution, under Nero, AD 64-68 – Peter, Paul, Erastus, Aristarchus, Trophimus, Barsabas, Ananias the bishop of Damascus, and 100’s of other Christians in Rome are martyred. Some were covered in pitch and set afire in the Emperor’s garden. Even the most stoic Roman citizens were horrified by this level of barbarous cruelty.
  • The Second Persecution, under Domitian, AD c.90-96 – Simeon the bishop of Jerusalem, Clement of Rome, Dionysius the Areopogite, Nicodemus, and Timothy are martyred. The Apostle John after being boiled in oil was exiled to the island of Patmos in the Aegean Sea.
  • The Third Persecution, under Trajan, AD 98-117 – Ignatius the bishop of Antioch, Alexander the bishop of Rome, Symeon, Zozimus, and Rufus are martyred. Trajan’s policy was that Christians were to be executed when found, but not to be sought out. Anonymous sources were to be rejected as unreliable and unsound.  
  • The Fourth Persecution, under Hadrian, AD 117-138 – Persecution continued along the lines of Trajan, but these purges were sporatic; Telesphorus the bishop of Rome was martyred.  
  • The Fifth Persecution, under Marcus Aurelius, AD 161-180 – Germanicus, Polycarp the bishop of Smyrna, Justin Martyr, Pothinus the bishop of Lyon, and Blandina are martyred. Christians are unfairly blamed for natural disasters and other calamities. 
Following the murderous carnage by the beasts, their handlers drive them back into their cages leaving the mangled bodies of the Christians in the arena
  • The Sixth Persecution, under Septimus Severus, AD 202-211 – Victor the bishop of Rome, Leonidas, Irenaeus the bishop of Lyon, Asclepiades the bishop of Antioch, Perpetua and Felicitus are martyred.  
  • The Seventh Persecution, under Maximinus the Tracian, AD 235-236 – Pontianus the bishop of Rome, Pammachius and Quiritus both who served as Roman Senators, Ursula and Hippolitus are martyred. 
  • The Eighth Persecution, under Decius, AD 249-251 – Fabianus the bishop of Rome, Alexander of Jerusalem, Nichomachus, Denisa, Julian, Trypho, Respicius, Agatha, Cyril the bishop of Gortyna, Babylas the bishop of Antioch, and Theodora are martyred. Origen the celebrated presbyter of Alexandria was tortured and imprisoned. 
  • The Ninth Persecution, under Valerian, AD 257-260 – Rufina, Secunda, Stephen the bishop of Rome, Sixtus the bishop of Rome, Cyprian the bishop of Carthage was exiled and then later martyred, and Fructuosis bishop of Tarragon are martyred.
The Persecution of Christians by Diocletian
  • The Tenth Persecution, under Diocletian, AD 303-311 – the destruction of churches and the burning of Christian books, 1000’s of Christians were expelled from their homes and many were imprisoned, Sebastian, Romanus, Dorotheus, three sisters Agrape, Chionia, and Irene in Greece, Mauritius,  and Alban are martyred.  
Tertullian

Christian writers throughout the centuries of the Early Church responded to the persecution of Christians by the Romans by challenging their reasons and arguments. One of the most highly skilled defenders of Christianity was Tertullian (AD c.160-c.220). He chided the Romans in his  book Apologia with these scathing words: “If the River Tiber reaches the walls, if the River Nile does not rise to the fields, if the sky does not move or if the earth does, if there is a famine, if there is a plague, the cry is at once: ‘The Christians to the lion!’  What, all of them to one lion?” Clearly, blaming Christians for all of the troubles experienced by the Romans was foolish and ridiculous. Tertullian pointed this out with bold and decisive logic. This line of reasoning, however, did not stop all forms of persecution and martyrdom. It was only in the ever-changing Roman political scene that this brutal policy finally came to an end. 

Emperor Constantine

In AD 313 the Edict of Milan finally brought an official end all of the persecution. J. D. Douglas notes, “Constantine and Licinius, meeting at Milan in January 313, redressed a two-century-old policy of the Roman government towards the Christian Church, so that Christians not only were free to worship as they wished, but were to receive compensation and return of confiscated property—in exchange for the divine favor of the state in its precarious hour.” (J. D. Douglas, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 659) In God’s providence the rising threats against the Roman Empire from the barbarians in the north and the east proved to be the driving force behind a change in policy. Rome needed to focus on external threats more than on internal threats.

Moreover, it must be noted that Constantine himself appeared to become a Christian in AD 312 at the battle of Milvian Bridge just outside of Rome. After being instructed by the Lord in a dream, he adopted the sign of the Labarum (Chi-Rho = Christ) for all of his soldiers. They fought under this banner and won a decisive victory. Thus any ongoing persecution against Christians would have been contrary to Constantine’s own faith. In the end, Jesus Christ received the glory as His spiritual kingdom continued to spread to every corner of the earth (See: Ps. 72:8; Matt. 16:18; Heb. 12:28-29).  

Here are four resources that helped me to compile this article–all of them are winners!

Sources of Information:  

Bettenson, Henry and Chris Maunder, eds. Documents of the Christian Church. Fourth Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.

Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

  • “Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
  • “Constantine the Great” by David F. Wright
  • “Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
  • “Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
  • “Milan, Edict of” by J. D. Douglas
  • “Persecution” by David F. Wells
  • “Pliny’s Letter to Trajan” by Peter Toon
  • “Rome” by Clyde Curry Smith

Eusebius Pamphilus. The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus. Grand Rapids, MI: Reprint, Baker Book House, 1992.

Foxe, Rev. John (1516-1587), Foxe’s Book of Martyrs, or formally known as Actes and Monumentes, (ed.) William Byron Forbrush, D.D., Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, originally published in English AD 1563, current copyright 1967.

Holmes, Michael W., ed. and trans. The Apostolic Fathers in English. Third Edition; after the earlier version of J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Richardson, Cyril C., ed. and trans. “Early Christian Fathers” in The Library of Christian Classics. Volume 1. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1953. 

Schaaf, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Volume 2. Fifth Edition. Originally published in 1858. Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendricksen Publishers, 1996. 

Walton, Robert C., Chronological & Background Charts of Church History, Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1986.

Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Bloomington, IN: Warhorn Media, Reprint, 2014.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved

John Bunyan on the Christian Life

December 13, 2024 /

“Come, pluck up, heart; let’s neither faint nor fear. Better, though difficult, the right way to go, Than wrong, though easy, where the end is woe.” ~John Bunyan from The Pilgrim’s Progress

John Bunyan (1628-1688)

John Bunyan was one of the more unusual figures to emerge during the English Reformation. He wasn’t formally trained in a University setting, nor did he pursue licensure and ordination through the Church of England. Yet, he had a profound and long-lasting ministry as a self-taught pastor. Given his independency, it is logical to place him amongst the English Puritans who separated themselves from the State Church. He is best known for his immensely popular allegory on the Christian life, A Pilgrim’s Progress. Outside of the Bible, this one volume has been reprinted more than any other book in the English language!

Throughout Bunyan’s life he endured lengthy times of incarceration in the Bedfordshire jail. He was arrested, charged, and imprisoned for simply serving as an “unregistered preacher” and a “religious enthusiast.” Oftentimes, the local magistrate would remind him that if he promised to no longer preach he would be freed that very day. Bunyan’s stout reply was always the same, “If you free me today, I shall surely preach tomorrow!”

John Bunyan writing The Pilgrim’s Progress while he languished in jail

Bunyan wrote many additional treatises on the Christian life and expositions on the books of the Bible. Here is a quote from Bunyan that I especially value, since it speaks of three significant doctrines: (1) the atoning work of Christ on the Cross (Eph. 1:7; 1 Jn. 1:7); (2) the intercessory prayers of Christ for his people (Rom. 8:34; Heb. 7:25, 9:24); (3) and the preserving power of Christ to protect his people through the many trials and tribulations of life (1 Tim. 2:5; 1 Jn. 2:1). Along these same lines Bunyan thoughtfully writes,

“God…will not lightly or easily lose His people. He has provided well for us: blood to wash us in; a Priest to pray for us, that we may be made to persevere; and, in case we foully fall, an Advocate to plead our case.”

— John Bunyan in The Golden Treasury of Puritan Quotations, edited by Dr. I. D. E. Thomas, page 282.

Let us all take great comfort in knowing that not only did Jesus Christ save us from the penalty of our sins, but he also keeps us safe through all of the difficulties and temptations of this present world. (See: 1 Cor. 10:13; James 1:2-4; 1 Pet. 1:3-5) In summary, we can rightly affirm–along with John Bunyan–that if Jesus Christ has done the greater thing of saving us while we were yet sinners, he will surely do the lesser thing of keeping us safe now that we are Christians. (See: John 10:27-29; Rom. 5:8-11; Phil. 1:6) We can be confident that he will do that very thing!

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Sources:

Bunyan, John. The Pilgrim’s Progress. Roger Pooley, ed. First Published in 1678; New York, NY: Penguin Books, Reprint, 2008.

Thomas, I. D. E. The Golden Treasury of Puritan Quotations. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1975.

Woodbridge, John D., gen. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

Tertullian: Defender of the Faith

November 22, 2024 /
Sometimes religious debates can get out-of-control! Yet, we see Tertullian (sitting to the right) calmly making his case against the accusers of Christianity.

“See to it that no one takes you captive by philosophy and empty deceit, according to human tradition…and not according to Christ.” Col. 2:8

One of the stellar personalities of the Early Church, in my opinion, was Tertullian (AD c.160-c.215/220). As a young man growing up in Carthage, he received a superior education in rhetoric, literature, philosophy, Latin, and Greek. Once he became a Christian in his late thirties he put all of that knowledge to use in defending the faith. Over the years he wrote many treatises on a multitude of subjects–polemical, theological, and practical. But, at the center of his vast literary output was his zeal at rigorously challenging the opponents of Christianity. Here is an example of his skillful defense,

“He [Paul] has been at Athens and had in his interviews with its philosophers become acquainted with the human wisdom which pretends to know the truth. In fact it only corrupts it and is itself divided into its own multiple heresies by the variety of its mutually hostile sects. What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord is there between the Academy and the Church? What have heretics to do with Christians? Our instruction comes from the porch of Solomon, who himself taught that the Lord should be sought in simplicity of heart. Away with all attempts to produce a Stoic, Platonic and dialectic Christianity. We want no curious disputation after possessing Christ Jesus, no speculation after enjoying the gospel. With our faith we desire no further belief. For this is our prime belief: that there is nothing more that we should believe besides.”

— Tertullian, On the Prescription of Heretics, 7; quoted in Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, 16-17.

Consider Tertullian’s penetrating question–“What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” This is a core concept that all Christians must recognize. We should certainly be familiar with pagan ideas, but we should never embrace them alongside of our Christian convictions. Any attempt at religious syncretism leads to despair and destruction. Jesus said it best, “No one can serve two masters, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other” (Matt. 6:24). Therefore, you are either for Christ or against Him. Give this line of reasoning some careful thought and see if you agree with logic of Tertullian.

As one of the “heirs” of the Protestant Reformation who happily embraces the theology of Wycliffe, Huss, Luther, Zwingli, Tyndale, Calvin, and Knox, I could never imagine myself mixing the thoughts of Zeno, Plato, and Aristotle with my faith in Jesus Christ! Such a strange concoction would surely be an offense to God and harmful to me. Let me exhort you, then, to resolve never to incorporate philosophical speculation with your belief in Jesus Christ. After all, “What indeed does Athens have to do with Jerusalem?”

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Greg Bahnsen first introduced me to Tertullian along with Tim Dowley’s History of Christianity. Frame gives a helpful summary of Tertullian’s life and theology.

Resources for further Study:

Bahnsen, Greg L. Always Ready: Directions for Defending the Christian Faith. Robert R. Booth, ed. Atlanta, GA: American Vision and Texarkana, AR: Covenant Media Foundation, 1996.

Dowley, Tim, ed. The History of Christianity: A Lion Handbook. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishing, 1990.

Frame, John M. A History of Western Philosophy and Theology. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2015.

Greenslade, Stanley L., ed. Early Latin Theology: Selections From Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose and Jerome. Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1956.

Lane, Anthony. A Concise History of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

A Dramatic Example of God’s Providencial Will

November 4, 2024 /
Mayflower II – Here is an immaculately detailed replica of the original ship that the Pilgrims traveled in across the Atlantic Ocean

“Whatever the LORD pleases He does, in heaven and in earth, in the seas and in all deep places.” Psalm 135:6

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

When you celebrate Thanksgiving day this year with your family, take time to reflect upon the many ways that the Lord preserved and protected the Pilgrims. One fine example of this is the life of John Howland (c.1592-1672). We don’t know all of the details of his life. We do, however, have a stirring testimony of how the Lord protected him when he fell off the deck of the Mayflower in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean! Here is William Bradford’s account of this dramatic example of God’s providence and the circumstances of his rescue: 

Once, as they lay at hull in a terrible storm, a strong young man, called John Howland, coming on deck was thrown into the sea; but it pleased God that he caught hold of the top-sail halliards which hung overboard and ran out at length; but he kept his hold, though he was several fathoms under the water, till he was hauled up by the rope and then with a boat-hook helped into the ship and saved; and though he was somewhat ill from it he lived many years and became a profitable member both of the church and the commonwealth.

— William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Ch. IX, page 63

“John Howland Overboard” (a print by Mike Haywood): This picture certainly captures the high drama of being thrown off the ship in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean!

Without the intervention of the Lord, the life of John Howland surely would have ended that stormy day in the mid-Atlantic. But, the Lord did intervene and preserved his life! I am certain that dangerous event caused John Howland to reflect on his own mortality and how God spared him from a certain death. He probably also considered what the Lord would have him do with the rest of his life. Here are a few details about what he did over the years:

John Howland (c.1592-1672)
  • He served as the secretary to Gov. John Carver (who died in the sickness of 1621).
  • He was the 13th signer of the Mayflower Compact that brought law and order to Plymouth Colony.
  • He married Elizabeth Tilley (whose father and mother died in the sickness of 1621).
  • He and Elizabeth were blessed with ten children. Here are their names: Desire, John, Hope, Elizabeth, Lydia, Hannah, Joseph, Jabez, Ruth, and Isaac.
  • He became a prosperous businessman and landowner in Plymouth.
  • He oversaw the Kennebec River Trading station and promoted the fur trade with England. 
  • He held several offices in Plymouth Colony throughout his life—a Freeman, Deputy to the General Court, Assistant Governor, and a Selectman of Plymouth Colony.
  • He was a faithful member of the church in Plymouth.

Finally, on his tombstone, surrounded by the graves of his many descendants, are the following words: 

Here ended the Pilgrimage of 

JOHN HOWLAND

who died February 23, 167_

aged above 80 years.

He married Elizabeth daughter of

JOHN TILLEY

who came with him in the 

Mayflower Dec. 1620.

From them are descended a

numerous posterity  

The life of John Howland is a wonderful example of God’s involvement in the lives of his people. The Bible teaches that the Lord providentially oversees and orders all of our actions (See: Gen. 50:20; Prov. 16:33; Matt. 10:30; Rom. 8:28). This fact can give us confidence in knowing that all the events of our life—both the good and bad—are used by God to accomplish his holy will. Life is full of challenges and difficulties, but as Christians we can know that the Lord is thoroughly involved in the details of our life. Let us trust Him in all that comes our way.

Here are three books on the Pilgrims that I have in my personal library–“The Landing of the Pilgrims” is especially good as an out-loud-reader for young children!

Sources: 

Beale, David. The Mayflower Pilgrims: Roots of Puritan, Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Baptist Heritage. Greenville, SC: Ambassador-Emerald International, 2000. 

Bradford, Wiliam. Of Plymouth Plantation: Bradford’s History of the Plymouth Settlement (1608-1650). Bulverde, TX: Vision Forum and Mantle Ministries, 1998. 

Daugherty, James. The Landing of the Pilgrims. New York, NY: Landmark Books, 1950.

Gragg, Rod. The Pilgrim Chronicles: An Eyewitness History of the Pilgrims and the Founding of Plymouth Colony. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2014.

Willison, George F. Saints and Strangers. New York, NY: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1945.  

Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2024 – All rights Reserved

Ignatius of Antioch: Courageous Martyr of the Early Church

October 21, 2024 /

“Indeed, all who desire to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will be persecuted.”   2 Tim. 3:12  

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Ignatius (AD c.35-c.117) served the Lord as the bishop of Antioch in Syria. Not much is known of his early life. There is an ancient but unprovable tradition, however, that Ignatius was the child whom Jesus took up into his arms and said, “Truly, I say to you, unless you turn and become like children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven. Whoever humbles himself like this child is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven” (cf. Matt. 18:3-4). As a young Christian, Ignatius was discipled by the Apostle John through extensive correspondence. Because of this he quickly matured in his understanding of Christianity and became a highly capable church leader.

The church at Antioch of Syria became known as the first place where the disciples of Jesus were identified as “Christians” (Acts 11:26). It was also a significant launching place for Christian missionary endeavors. Paul and Barnabas were sent out by the church of Antioch on multiple missionary trips (Acts 13:1-3). When large numbers of Gentiles were converted, the church in Antioch welcomed them (Acts 15:30-32). Ignatius served as its bishop (Gk. episkopos), alongside of a council of elders (Gk. presbyterion), and the deacons (Gk. diakonia). As the bishop his spiritual influence appears to have far exceeded Antioch, so much so that he was recognized as a spiritual leader throughout the region of Syria and Asia Minor.

The ruins of the Antiochus Gate in Antioch of Syria. Perhaps, Paul and Barnabas walked through this gate at the beginning of their missionary journeys!

Ignatius is best known for seven letters that he wrote during the last year of his life. These letters are preserved in the writings of the “Apostolic Fathers” and they document his pending martyrdom as he was taken to Rome as a captive. In them Ignatius distinguished himself by writing against the Docetists who asserted that Jesus only appeared to have a real birth, death, and bodily resurrection. In essence, they denied the incarnation of Jesus Christ. Ignatius strongly argued that the Docetists (Gk: dokeo = to seem, to appear) were in error about Jesus Christ. He thoughtfully wrote,   

Be deaf, therefore, whenever anyone speaks to you apart from Jesus Christ, who was of the family of David, who was the son of Mary; who really was born, who both ate and drank; who really was persecuted under Pontius Pilate, who really was crucified and died while those in heaven and on earth and under the earth looked on; who, moreover, really was raised from the dead when his Father raised him up. In the same way his Father will likewise also raise up in Christ Jesus us who believe in him. Apart from him we have no true life.

— “Ignatius to the Trallians” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 9

Hence, even at this early stage in the history of the Christian church, we see a fully formed doctrine of the humanity of Jesus Christ. Jesus did not just to appear to be a man, but he actually was a man. Over time, this contentious debate was finally resolved at the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) where Jesus Christ was acknowledged to be fully man and fully God at the same time, with the two natures united in one person (i.e. the hypostatic union). 

As a determined apologist of Christian orthodoxy Ignatius demonstrated his zeal for defending the truth against all heretical teaching (Gk. hairesis = a choice, destructive opinion, sect or schismatic faction). Therefore, he also argued against the Ebionites who demanded the keeping of Jewish regulations as a way of salvation. Ignatius emphatically noted, “It is utterly absurd to profess Jesus Christ and to practice Judaism. For Christianity did not believe in Judaism, but Judaism in Christianity, in which every tongue believed and was brought together to God” (Ignatius to the Magnesians, Art. 10). In this, Ignatius mirrors the teaching of the Apostle Paul who wrote to the Colossian church, “Therefore let no one pass judgment on you in questions of food and drink, or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath. These are a shadow of the things to come, but the substance belongs to Christ” (Col. 2:16-17). Clearly, the Apostles’ doctrine was that the work of Jesus Christ on the cross was completely sufficient to justify and cleanse the sinner; nothing else was needed. Ignatius held to this same belief. 

He also claimed to possess special gifts from the Holy Spirit by writing that he was “not lacking in any spiritual gift” (Ignatius to the Smynaeans, in the Salutation). Presumably, then, he prophesied, spoke in and interpreted “tongues” (Gk. glossolalia), and performed healings. As a result, some modern-day Pentecostals have claimed Ignatius as an early advocate of the “Spirit-filled” life. It is dubious, however, to make this claim when it is based only on one slender text (cited above). It is more likely that he manifested various spiritual gifts (i.e. the sign gifts), but that these ceased to exist as the Apostolic Age came to an end. See the Apostle Paul’s statement for context, “As for prophecies, they will pass away; as for tongues they will cease; as for knowledge, it will pass away. For we know in part and we prophesy in part, but when the perfect comes [i.e. the New Testament Scriptures], the partial will pass away” (1 Cor. 13:8-10). 

In his seven letters Ignatius quoted from three Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) and several of the New Testament Epistles (like the example above from Romans). This fact shows how the NT Canon was already widely recognized at the end of the Apostolic Age.

Ignatius is best known by Christians throughout the centuries as a martyr (Gk. marturion = a witness, testimony, evidence). On his way to Rome to suffer martyrdom under armed guard he wrote letters to the Christians in the cities through which he passed (Philadelphia and Smyrna), to cities that sent out delegations to meet him (Ephesus, Tralles, and Magnesia), to Rome (sent ahead of his arrival), and finally to Polycarp (the bishop of Smyrna). These seven letters contain a strong and passionate declaration of the gospel of Jesus Christ; urging his fellow Christians to “stand firm” and to seek lives of holiness. Note this entry To the Ephesians on the subject of humility. He writes,  

I am not commanding you, as though I were someone important. For even though I am in chains for the sake of the Name, I have not yet been perfected in Jesus Christ. For now I am only beginning to be a disciple, and I speak to you as my fellow students. For I need to be trained by you in faith, instruction, endurance, and patience. But since love does not allow me to be silent concerning you, I have therefore taken the initiative to encourage you, so that you may run together in harmony with the mind of God. For Jesus Christ, our inseparable life, is the mind of the Father, just as the bishops appointed throughout the world are in the mind of Christ.

— “Ignatius to the Ephesians” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 3

These letters show that the episcopal form of church government was beginning to take a strong hold in Syria and Asia Minor as the preferred structure of ecclesiastical authority. It is telling that each one of the major churches that Ignatius sent letters to were ruled over by a bishop (Gk: episkopos). Concerning the structure of church government—bishops, presbyters, and deacons—Ignatius exhorts, 

Flee from division as the beginning of evils. You must all follow the bishop as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and follow the council of presbyters as you would the apostles; respect the deacons as the commandment of God. Let no one do anything that has to do with the church without the bishop. Only that Eucharist which is under the authority of the bishop (or whomever he himself designates) is to be considered valid. Wherever the bishop appears, there let the congregation be; just as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the catholic church. It is not permissible either to baptize or to hold a love feast without the bishop. But whatever he approves is also pleasing to God, in order that everything you do may be trustworthy and valid.

— “Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 8

In addition, it was Ignatius who first used the word “catholic” (i.e., “universal”) to describe the interrelationship between the churches scattered throughout the Roman world (See: Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Art. 8). In this sense, Ignatius emphasized the fact that the churches were not completely independent from one another, but they were inter-connected. The best evidence for this connection between them was the way in which all of the churches adhered to the ruling of the Jerusalem Council regarding the inclusion of Gentiles into the church (Acts 15:1-21). 

Moreover, Ignatius seems convinced that the return of Jesus Christ was imminent. Given the rising persecution against the disciples of Jesus Christ, he can certainly not be faulted for this expectation and hope. He boldly writes,   

These are the last times. Therefore let us be reverent, let us fear the patience of God, lest it become a judgment against us. For let us either fear the wrath to come or love the grace which is present, one of the two; only let us be found in Christ Jesus, which leads to true life. Let nothing appeal to you apart from him, in whom I carry around these chains (my spiritual pearls!), by which I hope, through your prayers, to rise again. May I always share in them, in order that I might be found in the company of the Christians of Ephesus who have always been in agreement with the apostles, by the power of Jesus Christ.

— “Ignatius to the Ephesians” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 11

Even though Jesus Christ did not return within the life of Ignatius, his strong faith and resilient attitude prevailed in the end. Ignatius expected to be in the presence of his Lord, Jesus Christ, immediately following his death. This was not a vain hope, but one built upon the promise of Jesus—“Let not your hearts be troubled. Believe in God, believe also in me. In my Father’s house are many rooms…I will come again and will take you to myself, that where I am you may be also” (John 14:1-3). 

When the Roman Emperor Trajan, who ruled from AD 98-117, visited Antioch he desired to see its most famous citizen, Ignatius. This was not a friendly visit and the Emperor Trajan greeted him in the following manner:

Roman Emperor Trajan

Trajan: “There you are, wicked devil, deceiver of men!”

Ignatius: “‘Not an evil spirit,’ but I have Jesus in my heart.”

Trajan: “Jesus Christ within you? Do you mean him who was crucified by Pontius Pilate?”

Ignatius: “Yes, he was crucified for my sins.”   

Without a trial of any kind the heartless Emperor Trajan ordered that Ignatius be taken to Rome and be thrown to the wild beasts. He was to be, “butchered to make a Roman holiday.” It was on his way to Rome that Ignatius penned his famous letters to individual churches and to Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna. Knowing that he would soon be martyred, Ignatius wrote the following words, 

I am writing to all the churches and am insisting to everyone that I die for God of my own free will—unless you hinder me. I implore you: do not be unseasonably kind to me. Let me be food for the wild beasts, through whom I can reach God. I am God’s wheat, and I am being ground by the teeth of wild beasts, so that I may prove to be pure bread. Better yet, coax the wild  beasts, so that they may become my tomb and leave nothing of my body behind, lest I become a burden to anyone once I have fallen asleep. Then I will truly be a disciple of Jesus Christ, when the world will no longer see my body. Pray to the Lord on my behalf, so that through these instruments I may prove to be a sacrifice to God. I do not give you orders like Peter and Paul: they were apostles, I am a convict; they were free, but I am even now still a slave. But if I suffer, I will be a freedman of Jesus Christ and will rise up free in him. In the meantime, as a prisoner I am learning to desire nothing.

— “Ignatius to the Romans” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 4

A visitor to the Colosseum once asked, “Are there any relics still to be obtained?” The guide replied, “Gather the dust from the floor of the Colosseum; it is all the martyrs.”

Many weeks later when Ignatius finally arrived in Rome, the Emperor Trajan sentenced him to death. Ignatius replied by looking up to heaven and uttering these words, “I thank thee, O Lord, that thou hast vouchsafed thus to honor me” and later while facing the lions he stated, “I am God’s grain, to be ground between the teeth of wild beasts, so that I may become a holy loaf for the Lord.” Soon after this all that was left of Ignatius was a few gnawed bones. When his friends recovered his remains they knew that Ignatius was “with Christ, which is far better” (Phil. 1:23). One hundred and twenty years later, Tertullian (AD c.160-220), the Latin Church Father, rightly affirmed, “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.” The testimony of Ignatius, and many other martyrs of the Early Church, serve as sober reminders to modern-day Christians that the secular authorities can turn against the members of Christ’s Church. The Apostle Paul emphatically noted, “Indeed, all who desire to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will be persecuted” (2 Tim. 3:12). Let us, then, be watchful, and let us prepare ourselves for what trials and tribulations may come in the providential will of God.

 

These three books first introduced me to the treasures of Ignatius–all are winners!

Sources for Further Study: 

Abott-Smith, G. A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament. Third Edition. Edinburgh, Scotland, T. & T. Clark, 1981.

Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.

Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

  • “Antioch (Syrian)” by James M. Houston
  • “Apostolic Fathers” by David F. Wright
  • “Apostolic Succession” by R. E. Nixon
  • “Bishop” by Peter Toon
  • “Chalcedon, Definition of” by G. T. D. Angel
  • “Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
  • “Deacon” by J. W. Charley
  • “Docetism” by G. W. Grogan
  • “Ebonites” by H. L. Ellison
  • “Eusebius of Caesarea” by J. G. G. Norman
  • “Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
  • “Ignatius” by David F. Wright
  • “Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
  • “Persecution” by David F. Wells
  • “Polycarp” by David F. Wright
  • “Presbyter” by W. Stanford Reid
  • “Rome” by Clyde Curry Smith
  • “Tertullian” by David F. Wright

Dowley, Tim, ed. The Lion Handbook of the History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishing, 1990.

Eusebius Pamphilus. The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus. Grand Rapids, MI: Reprint, Baker Book House, 1992.

Holmes, Michael W., ed. and trans. The Apostolic Fathers in English. Third Edition; after the earlier version of J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Leith, John H., ed. Creeds of the Churches. Third Edition. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1982. 

Richardson, Cyril C. Early Christian Fathers. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1970. 

Schaaf, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Volume 2. Fifth Edition. Originally published in 1858. Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendricksen Publishers, 1996. 

Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

  • “Ignatius of Antioch” by Edwin M. Yamauchi
  • “John and the End of the Apostolic Age” by Leon Morris
  • “Paul and the Missionary Enterprise” by F. F. Bruce

Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Bloomington, IN: Warhorn Media, Reprint, 2014.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2024 – All Rights Reserved

A New Class for the Fall Semester

September 18, 2024 /
The Stoning of Stephen, as Saul looks on in approval

On September 19, 2024 we begin the Fall Semester of Redeemer Theological Academy. Our class will be a study of the “History of the Early Church” (Apostolic Age through AD 451). Below are all the details:

Class Description: 

This weekly in-person class will meet on Thursday mornings in Calvin Hall, Room 206 (9:30-11:30 AM) at Redeemer Presbyterian Church. Each week Pastor Serven will give lectures on the key people, events, and issues of this important period in the development and growth of the New Testament Church. In particular, we will focus on the lives of the Christian martyrs, the major doctrinal controversies, and the way in which the Lord protected and preserved his Church through many crushing difficulties. In addition to lectures from Pastor Serven we will read and discuss portions of The Apostolic Fathers (which include The Didache & writings by Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp). Near the end of the semester we will read The Confessions by Saint Augustine.

Required Textbooks: 

— The Apostolic Fathers in English. Michael W. Holmes, ed. Third Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006. 

— Augustine, Aurelius. Confessions. Sarah Ruden, trans. New York, NY: The Modern Library, 2018. 

Schedule: 

Class begins on Thursday, September 19, 2024 (9:30-11:30 AM). A list of reading assignments will be given out on the first day of class. 

Class Instructor: 

Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven is a longtime teacher of the Bible, Reformed theology, and the history of Christ’s Church. After a lengthy pastoral career of serving Presbyterian churches in both California and Missouri (1980-2016), Marcus and his family relocated to Austin, Texas in order to retire—but God had other plans! He now serves as the Pastor of Christian Discipleship here at Redeemer Presbyterian Church and is a member of the Presbytery of South Texas (PCA). Marcus has earned degrees from the University of California at Davis (BA), Fuller Theological Seminary (MDiv), and Covenant Theological Seminary (ThM and DMin). He is an active member of the Evangelical Theological Society.

If you are interested, please contact Pastor Marcus Serven at: mserven@redeemerpres.org

Escape! The Dramatic Story of Katie Luther

August 24, 2024 /
Martin Luther and Katharina von Bora–a renegade monk and a runaway nun–and how the Lord brought them together to be a married couple.

“The highest gift and favor of God is a pious, kind, godly, and domestic wife, with whom thou mayest live peaceably, and to whom thou mayest intrust all thy possessions, yea, thy body and thy life.” ~Martin Luther

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

The ruins of the Cistercian Convent of Nimbschen

Many Christians have wondered just how Martin Luther (1483-1546) met his future wife, Katharina von Bora (1499-1552). This story is a unique and humorous one. Katharina along with eleven other nuns were desirous of leaving the convent. When she was just sixteen years of age Katharina had entered the Cistercian Convent of Nimbschen near Grimma, where she took the  religious vows of “stability, poverty, chastity, and obedience” (1515). She along with the other nuns had read Luther’s pamphlets and were sympathetic with the beliefs of the Reformation. In particular, the nuns all hoped to leave the convent, to get married, and to raise children. Luther’s friend, Leonard Koppe, was a local merchant in Torgau who served the needs of the convent. In 1522 he delivered twelve barrels of pickled herring to the convent’s kitchen for food supplies. A secret plan, however, had been arranged for the twelve young nuns to hide themselves in the barrels once they were empty and to quietly leave the convent. As the wagon trundled out the gate and down the road imagine the discomfort of the young ladies inside the barrels! It was certainly very smelly, stuffy, and hot! Once it was safe, the lids from the barrels were pried off and the former nuns were now free! They were all taken by Leonard Koppe into Wittenberg where, after a short time, suitable marriages were arranged for them.  

Katarina “Katie” Luther

One nun, however, proved to be a difficult person to match with a husband. That person was Katharina von Bora. Martin Luther encouraged her to marry a fellow Reformer, Dr. Glatz from a nearby town, but Katie replied “No, I can never marry old Dr. Glatz!” Instead, she insisted that she would marry Dr. Luther himself, rather than Dr. Glatz. This comment planted an idea in Luther’s mind, and after a short time he enthusiastically concluded that he should marry Katie himself. Finally, they were married on June 13, 1525; at the time Martin Luther was 42 years old and Katie was 26 years old. Their difference in age was of no account. They enjoyed a happy life together and were blessed with six children—Johannes, Elisabeth, Magdalena, Martin, Paul, and Margaret. There was a saying that Martin loved to quote: “Let the wife make her husband glad to come home and let him make her sorry to see him leave.” He also stated, “I would not change Katie for all of France or for Venice.” In short, they loved one another deeply and their marriage became a fine example to many other Christians who desired to marry. 

Surrounded by their many children, and their friend Phillip Melancthon, Martin and Katie Luther enjoy singing hymns during family worship.

For Further Reading: 

Bainton, Roland H. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther. New York, NY: Meridian Books, 1955.

DeRusha, Michelle. Katharia & Martin: The Radical Marriage of a Runaway Nun and a Renegade Monk. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2017.

Kittelson, James M. Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and His Career. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1986.

Mall, Jane E. Kitty My Rib. St. Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House, 1959.  

Petersen, William J. Martin Luther had a Wife. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1983. 

Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2024 – All Rights Reserved

George Whitefield: Zealous Evangelist of the 1st Great Awakening

January 22, 2024 /
Once all churches were closed to him by a jealous English clergy, Whitefield resorted to “field preaching”

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“How beautiful are the feet of those who preach the good news!” Romans 10:15

Early one Sunday morning, on September 30, 1770, after having energetically preached an eloquent two-hour long sermon the night before, that great preacher, the Rev. George Whitefield, left this world and went into the presence of his Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. The people of the First Presbyterian Church of Newburyport, Massachusetts grieved the loss. Not only in this congregation, but in thousands of congregations throughout all thirteen colonies, England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and the Netherlands, Christians gathered together upon hearing the news of his death to thank God for the life of this choice servant of God. The well-known hymnist William Cowper penned these thoughtful lines about George Whitefield’s life and ministry,

“He loved the world that hated him: the tear that dropped upon his Bible was sincere; Assailed by scandal and the tongue of strife, His only answer was a blameless life, And he that forged and he that threw the dart, Had each a brother’s interest in his heart.”

William Cowper…In Dallimore, George Whitefield: God’s Anointed Servant, 198.
With his “lazy left eye” sometimes George Whitefield was derisively called “Dr. Squintum” by his many detractors

What was it about this itinerant evangelist that inspired such lines and made such a tremendous impact on the church of the 18th Century? Who could possibly have kept up the arduous schedule of regularly preaching over forty hours each week and when challenged to rest replied, “I had rather wear out, than rust out?” How was it possible that a single man could preach such powerful sermons without any amplification to upwards of 30,000 people in outdoor settings? Such were the facts concerning this great man of God—the Rev. George Whitefield.

The Old Bell Inn, Gloucester, England

George Whitefield was born on December 16, 1714 in Gloucester, England. He was the seventh and last child of his parents, Thomas and Elizabeth Whitefield. The family made their living from running the Bell Inn. It was in the midst of the constant comings and goings of people at the Inn that George developed a love and appreciation for all types of people. When George was only two years old his Father died. As a result, his Mother ran the Inn with her children’s help, but still insisted that her children attend worship at the local parish. Early in his life George would preach “practice” sermons to his friends and siblings. He had a flair for the dramatic, and developed a mastery of illustrating Bible stories. Although he was not yet a Christian, his passion for the Word of God seemed evident even in his youth.

Pembroke College at the University of Oxford

It became Elizabeth’s aspiration that George would end up not as an Inn-keeper, but that he would attend Oxford University and become a minister in the Church of England. This lofty goal seemed impossible for they could not possibly afford such a high expense. Eventually, Elizabeth Whitefield discovered a way that her son could attend the University; he would go as a servitor meeting the needs of well-to-do gentlemen in exchange for tuition. He entered a preparatory school near Oxford in the Fall of 1730 at age fifteen, and was then formally received into Pembroke College at the University during his seventeenth year.

Both John and Charles Wesley were good friends to Whitefield during the early years of his Christian life–however later they became theological opponents…

Whitefield performed exceedingly well in his studies at Oxford University learning to read in both Greek and Latin. He was soon tested in his personal character as to whether he would follow the pattern of revelry and riotous living of his well-to-do classmates, or not. In this test he firmly resisted their invitations and gave himself over to a pursuit of holiness and study. It was because of his restrained lifestyle that he was noticed by other like-minded students and became close friends with John and Charles Wesley. This friendship was to last a lifetime and would become a significant influence upon his future ministry. The three men along with several other students were part of a private religious society which was committed to regular attendance at worship, the study of Scripture, the practice of prayer and fasting, and ministering to orphans and the imprisoned. They were derisively called by their critics the “Holy Club,” the “Bible Moths,” and the “Bible Bigots.” This group, though, became the proving ground of what, a short time later, would become known as the Methodist movement of the First Great Awakening.

Whitefield’s conversion came about through the reading of the devotional classic The Life of God in the Soul of Man, written by the Scotsman Henry Scougal (1650-1678). In this work Whitefield became acquainted with the doctrine of the “New Birth.” As he studied Jesus’ words in John 3:1-15 he hungered after this experience and earnestly prayed that God would make him “born again.” Wrongly, Whitefield thought that this could come about through deeds of self-denial, charity, and holiness. He constantly read his Greek New Testament, denied himself food and drink, confessed his sins with long detailed lists, and even contemplated giving up his association with the “Holy Club” since he felt so unworthy. Finally, after becoming extremely ill in the Spring of 1735 he fully cast himself upon Christ and rejected all efforts of works righteousness. God wonderfully opened his eyes and by the grace of God his heart was regenerated resulting in a genuine conversion. He writes of this time,

“God was pleased to remove the heavy load, to enable me to lay hold of his dear Son by a living faith, and by giving me the Spirit of adoption, to seal me, even to the day of everlasting redemption. O! with what joy—joy unspeakable—even joy that was full of and big with glory, was my soul filled when the weight of sin went off and an abiding sense of the love of God broke in upon my disconsolate soul! Surely it was a day to be had in everlasting remembrance. My joys were like a springtide and overflowed the banks.”

Dallimore, George Whitefield: Life and Times, Vol. 1, 77.

Once converted, Whitefield would habitually arise at 4 AM spending long hours on his knees reading his English Bible, studying each verb tense in Greek, and then considering the learned thoughts from Matthew Henry’s Commentary on the Bible. He made it his unique practice “to pray over every line and every word” in both English and Greek. These initial periods of fruitful study built a strong foundation of scriptural understanding that would last his entire lifetime. Once Whitefield graduated in 1736, he was ordained as a Deacon in the Church of England and began preaching in local parishes. He had a noticeable effect upon the spiritual apathy of his listeners and began to receive many invitations to speak.

Here is a fine example of an 18th Century sailing ship of the kind Whitefield traveled on to Georgia

In the midst of these successes Whitefield’s old friend from the “Holy Club,” John Wesley who was then serving in Georgia as a missionary, invited Whitefield to come to the colony as a missionary as well. After a brief time of consideration he determined to go. The crowds that attended his preaching were extremely sad to see him leave, but he was convicted that God had called him. While on ship, Whitefield let it be known that he was a clergyman, but this had little effect on the coarse behavior of the crew. Nevertheless, Whitefield asked God to give him an opportunity to proclaim the gospel—and He did give such an opportunity. As the days at sea wore on, Whitefield took it upon himself to tutor the sailors at reading and writing. He also began a small catechism class which began to grow as the days went by. Finally, he asked the Captain for permission to preach to the ship’s officers, whereupon the Captain granted him permission to speak to the entire ship’s company. A pulpit of sorts was built for him amid-ships out of thick wooden planks laid across two sturdy chairs. After preaching with great effect that day, the Captain asked him to preach again the next day. The other ships, of which there were two, jealously moved in closer to the lead ship so that they too could hear the twenty-three year old preacher. Imagine the sight of several hundred sailors, officers in their dress uniforms, soldiers in their red coats, and many passengers gathered on the three ships sailing side by side in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean! What a unique and memorable worship service that was! Eleven profitable months were spent in Georgia preaching the Word of God throughout the colony, and this one visit was to have a great effect on shaping Whitefield’s life work. Several of the colonists had died leaving orphans that desperately needed to be cared for. Whitefield’s heart went out to them and he determined to found an orphanage for them that would be called “Bethesda.” From then on wherever he preached, he called for an offering to help with the work of the Orphan House in Georgia.

Howell Harris (1714-1773)

Upon his return to England to be ordained as a Priest he resumed his itinerant preaching wherever he was invited, usually preaching two or three times each day of the week. However, burning in heart was a desire to try the open air preaching style that was beginning to bear fruit in Wales under the ministry of Howell Harris. His first opportunity came on a hill overlooking the entrance of a Welsh coal mine in 1739. The hardened and rough miners were wonderfully moved by the simple declaration of God’s Word. Whitefield could tell that he was reaching them by seeing the white furrows that their tears would leave down their smutty cheeks. Many other open-air preaching opportunities followed these initial successes with growing crowds numbered as large as 30,000 people. The First Great Awakening in England had fervently begun and the preaching of George Whitefield was at the forefront of this vast outpouring of spiritual renewal.

George Whitfield preaching to the Welsh coal miners at Bristol

Along with the continuous preaching that characterized the life of George Whitefield, there was also a vigorous commitment to starting organizations that would disciple the new converts. These groups were called “societies,” and met during the week for the purpose of Bible study, prayer, accountability, and service. It was the members of these initial societies that later became known as “Methodists.” Whitefield never intended to start an organization that would compete with the Church of England, however, over the years a determined hostility grew towards him so that in 1743 he accepted a position as the Moderator of the Calvinistic Methodists.

John Wesley at mid-career

Within the Methodist movement there developed a division over the nature of salvation. The central question was this: is each person so lost and unable to save himself that salvation is exclusively brought about by God (Calvinism), or is each person able to freely exercise his own will by choosing God in the matter of salvation (Arminianism)? George Whitefield’s sympathies lay squarely with a Calvinistic view, however, his friend and co-worker John Wesley opted for the Arminian view. Sparks flew between the two sides, prompted especially by John Wesley’s polemic tracts and verbal warnings against Whitefield’s Calvinism. To his credit, Whitefield strove to quietly resolve the issues. He wrote in his defense, “I embrace the Calvinistic scheme, not because Calvin, but Jesus Christ has taught it to me.”  Eventually, he even stepped down from his position as head of the Calvinistic Methodists so that he could become “a servant of all.” It is for this reason that John Wesley has become known as the “father of Methodism,” rather than George Whitefield.

He traveled for the rest of his life preaching throughout England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Holland, and America—making thirteen crossings of the Atlantic Ocean in all.  In America he worked with the Congregationalist Jonathan Edwards, Dutch Reformed Theodore Frelinghuysen, Presbyterians William and Gilbert Tennant, Baptists and Lutherans, and even with the agnostic scientist and statesman Benjamin Franklin—all of whom helped to shape the “Great Awakening” in the Colonies. During one six-week whirlwind preaching tour of New England in 1740, Whitefield set America on fire with spiritual revival. In forty-five days he preached over one hundred and seventy-five sermons to tens of thousands of listeners. His method of preaching was simple and direct. He had an extraordinary power to hold people spellbound from every walk of life. Benjamin Franklin estimated that he could be clearly heard in the open air by up to 30.000 people at one time. Whitefield was probably the earliest celebrity of America; wherever he went he was thronged by legions of listeners.

Whitfield was a eloquent preacher who held congregations spellbound with his gift of oratory

One famous account of his preaching was written by a farmer Nathan Cole. He reports,

“When I saw Mr. Whitefield come upon the scaffold he looked almost angelic, a young, slim, slender youth, before some thousands of people and with a bold, undaunted countenance…it solemnized my mind and put me in a trembling fear before he began to preach for he looked as if he was clothed with authority from the Great God. Hearing him preach gave me a heart wound [so that], by God’s blessing, my old foundation was broken up and I saw that my righteousness would not save me, then I was convinced of the doctrine of election and went right to quarreling with God about it because all that I could do would not save me…”

Dallimore, George Whitfield: Life and Times, Vol. 1, 541.
George Whitefield in his maturity

Whitefield suffered physically from all of his speaking and travel, but with rarely a complaint. Sometimes he was completely bed-ridden, but would revive while he stood in the pulpit and preach with great energy. Whitefield noted, “While at times he was weary in ministry, he never found himself becoming weary of ministry.” He endured repeated criticism from ecclesiastical foes of the Awakening who felt that it was so much “enthusiasm.” The common rabble abused him with interruptions, insults, and injury. Nevertheless, he genuinely sought to minister to all who came to his open-air preaching events. Some have criticized him for owning slaves and not speaking out forcefully enough on this issue. However, in his defense it must be noted that he received the slaves and a plantation as a gift from appreciative followers in South Carolina as a means of providing food and income for the Orphan House. In 1741 he married Elizabeth James, a widow ten years his senior, and enjoyed this relationship until her death in 1768. They had one child, a boy named John, who died a few months after birth. In 1748 he began a new dimension of his ministry—preaching to the nobility in London on a regular basis. These gatherings were sponsored by Lady Huntington, a generous financial supporter of the Awakening in England, and resulted in the conversion of many within English royal society. When in London he alternately preached in two massive buildings, the Tabernacle, constructed in 1741 by his enthusiastic supporters, and the Chapel, built in 1753 in an effort to reach a spiritually darkened part of the city. The ministry of these two congregations became the foundation of the evangelical movement in England for the next one hundred years. In 1768 Whitefield helped organize and promote a college for training preachers at Trevecca in Wales.

Rev. George Whitefield’s grave under the pulpit in the First Presbyterian Church in Newburyport, MA

Whitefield made his seventh and final trip to America in 1769 at fifty-three years of age. Although his health was quickly failing, his preaching was still powerful in its effects and thousands came to a saving knowledge of Jesus Christ. He died suddenly at Newburyport, Massachusetts, and is buried under the pulpit of the First Presbyterian Church. The whole nation grieved, Christian and non-Christian alike, for a man who spent himself “as a servant of all” had passed from the earth into the presence of his Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.

Here are five of my favorite books on the life and ministry of George Whitefield–each is a gem!

Resources for Further Study: 

This is the first book on Whitefield I ever read–it was eye-opening!

Ahlstrom, Sydney E. A Religious History of the American People. 2 Volumes. Garden   City, NY: Image Books, 1975.

Galli, Mark, ed. Christian History. Issue 38. Published by Christianity Today Inc.

Dallimore, Arnold A. George Whitefield: God’s Anointed Servant in the Great Revival of the Eighteenth Century. Wheaton,IL: Crossway Books, 1990.

Dallimore, Arnold A. George Whitfield: The Life and Times of the Great Evangelist of the 18th Century Revival. Two Volumes. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1970. 

Douglas, J. D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

  • “Arminianism” by Robert G. Clouse
  • “Calvinism” by William S. Reid 
  • “Calvinistic Methodism” by A. Skevington Wood
  • “Edwards, Jonathan” by Paul Helm
  • “England, Church of” by John A. Simpson
  • “Franklin, Benjamin” by Harry Skilton
  • “Great Awakening, The” by Bruce L. Shelley
  • “Harris, Howell” by Ian Sellers
  • “Methodist” by A. Skevington Wood
  • “Tennent, Gilbert” by Howard A. Whaley
  • “Wales” by R. Tudor Jones
  • “Wesley, Charles” by A. Skevington Wood
  • “Wesley, John”  by A. Skevington Wood
  • “Whitefield, George” by Arthur Pollard

Douglas, J. D., ed. Who’s Who in Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.

Dowley, Tim, ed. The History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford: Lion Publishers, 1990.

Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1984.

  • “Halfway Covenant” by Mark A. Noll
  • “Edwards, Jonathan” by Mark A. Noll
  • “New England Theology” Mark A. Noll
  • “New Light Schism” by W. A. Hoffecker
  • “Old School Theology” by W. A. Hoffecker
  • “Revivalism” by M. E. Dieter
  • “The Great Awakenings” by Mark A. Noll

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

This is a readily available biography on Whitefield’s life–its a good place to start if you want to know more!

Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity. 2 Volumes. Revised edition. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1975.

Lawson, Steven J. The Evangelisic Zeal of George Whitefield. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2013.

Lovelace, Richard F. Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varisty Press, 1979.

Marshall, Peter, and David Manuel. The Light and the Glory. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1977.

Murray, Iain H. Jonathan Edwards: A New Biography. Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1987.

Noll, Mark A. A History of Christianity in the United States. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing House, 1992.

Philip, Robert. The Life and Times of George Whitefield. First Published in 1837; Edinburgh, Scotland: Reprint, The Banner of Truth Trust, 2007. 

This fine volume is a wonderful starting place for research on figures in American Christianity!

Reid, Daniel G., ed. Dictionary of Christianity in America. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990.

  • “Great Awakening” by H. S. Stout
  • “Whitefield, George” by H. S. Stout

Ryle, J. C. Christian Leaders of the Eighteenth Century. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1978.

Select Sermons of George Whitefield. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1958.

Tracy, Joseph. The Great Awakening: A History of the Revival of Religion in the time of Edwards and Whitefield. Originally published in 1842; Reprint, Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1976.

Wells, David F., ed. Eerdman’s Handbook to Christianity in America. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing House, 1983.

Woodbridge, John D., ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

  • “Edwards, Jonathan” by Paul Helm
  • “Wesley, John and Charles” by A. Skevington Wood
  • “Whitefield, George” by Arnold A. Dallimore

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

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