Mayflower II – Here is an immaculately detailed replica of the original ship that the Pilgrims traveled in across the Atlantic Ocean
“Whatever the LORD pleases He does, in heaven and in earth, in the seas and in all deep places.” Psalm 135:6
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
When you celebrate Thanksgiving day this year with your family, take time to reflect upon the many ways that the Lord preserved and protected the Pilgrims. One fine example of this is the life of John Howland (c.1592-1672). We don’t know all of the details of his life. We do, however, have a stirring testimony of how the Lord protected him when he fell off the deck of the Mayflower in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean! Here is William Bradford’s account of this dramatic example of God’s providence and the circumstances of his rescue:
Once, as they lay at hull in a terrible storm, a strong young man, called John Howland, coming on deck was thrown into the sea; but it pleased God that he caught hold of the top-sail halliards which hung overboard and ran out at length; but he kept his hold, though he was several fathoms under the water, till he was hauled up by the rope and then with a boat-hook helped into the ship and saved; and though he was somewhat ill from it he lived many years and became a profitable member both of the church and the commonwealth.
— William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Ch. IX, page 63
“John Howland Overboard” (a print by Mike Haywood): This picture certainly captures the high drama of being thrown off the ship in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean!
Without the intervention of the Lord, the life of John Howland surely would have ended that stormy day in the mid-Atlantic. But, the Lord did intervene and preserved his life! I am certain that dangerous event caused John Howland to reflect on his own mortality and how God spared him from a certain death. He probably also considered what the Lord would have him do with the rest of his life. Here are a few details about what he did over the years:
John Howland (c.1592-1672)
He served as the secretary to Gov. John Carver (who died in the sickness of 1621).
He was the 13th signer of the Mayflower Compact that brought law and order to Plymouth Colony.
He married Elizabeth Tilley (whose father and mother died in the sickness of 1621).
He and Elizabeth were blessed with ten children. Here are their names: Desire, John, Hope, Elizabeth, Lydia, Hannah, Joseph, Jabez, Ruth, and Isaac.
He became a prosperous businessman and landowner in Plymouth.
He oversaw the Kennebec River Trading station and promoted the fur trade with England.
He held several offices in Plymouth Colony throughout his life—a Freeman, Deputy to the General Court, Assistant Governor, and a Selectman of Plymouth Colony.
He was a faithful member of the church in Plymouth.
Finally, on his tombstone, surrounded by the graves of his many descendants, are the following words:
Here ended the Pilgrimage of
JOHN HOWLAND
who died February 23, 167_
aged above 80 years.
He married Elizabeth daughter of
JOHN TILLEY
who came with him in the
Mayflower Dec. 1620.
From them are descended a
numerous posterity
The life of John Howland is a wonderful example of God’s involvement in the lives of his people. The Bible teaches that the Lord providentially oversees and orders all of our actions (See: Gen. 50:20; Prov. 16:33; Matt. 10:30; Rom. 8:28). This fact can give us confidence in knowing that all the events of our life—both the good and bad—are used by God to accomplish his holy will. Life is full of challenges and difficulties, but as Christians we can know that the Lord is thoroughly involved in the details of our life. Let us trust Him in all that comes our way.
Here are three books on the Pilgrims that I have in my personal library–“The Landing of the Pilgrims” is especially good as an out-loud-reader for young children!
Sources:
Beale, David. The Mayflower Pilgrims: Roots of Puritan, Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Baptist Heritage. Greenville, SC: Ambassador-Emerald International, 2000.
Bradford, Wiliam. Of Plymouth Plantation: Bradford’s History of the Plymouth Settlement (1608-1650). Bulverde, TX: Vision Forum and Mantle Ministries, 1998.
Daugherty, James. The Landing of the Pilgrims. New York, NY: Landmark Books, 1950.
Gragg, Rod. The Pilgrim Chronicles: An Eyewitness History of the Pilgrims and the Founding of Plymouth Colony. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2014.
Willison, George F. Saints and Strangers. New York, NY: Reynal & Hitchcock, 1945.
Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2024 – All rights Reserved
Once all churches were closed to him by a jealous English clergy, Whitefield resorted to “field preaching”
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
“How beautiful are the feet of those who preach the good news!” Romans 10:15
Early one Sunday morning, on September 30, 1770, after having energetically preached an eloquent two-hour long sermon the night before, that great preacher, the Rev. George Whitefield, left this world and went into the presence of his Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. The people of the First Presbyterian Church of Newburyport, Massachusetts grieved the loss. Not only in this congregation, but in thousands of congregations throughout all thirteen colonies, England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and the Netherlands, Christians gathered together upon hearing the news of his death to thank God for the life of this choice servant of God. The well-known hymnist William Cowper penned these thoughtful lines about George Whitefield’s life and ministry,
“He loved the world that hated him: the tear that dropped upon his Bible was sincere; Assailed by scandal and the tongue of strife, His only answer was a blameless life, And he that forged and he that threw the dart, Had each a brother’s interest in his heart.”
William Cowper…In Dallimore, George Whitefield: God’s Anointed Servant, 198.
With his “lazy left eye” sometimes George Whitefield was derisively called “Dr. Squintum” by his many detractors
What was it about this itinerant evangelist that inspired such lines and made such a tremendous impact on the church of the 18th Century? Who could possibly have kept up the arduous schedule of regularly preaching over forty hours each week and when challenged to rest replied, “I had rather wear out, than rust out?” How was it possible that a single man could preach such powerful sermons without any amplification to upwards of 30,000 people in outdoor settings? Such were the facts concerning this great man of God—the Rev. George Whitefield.
The Old Bell Inn, Gloucester, England
George Whitefield was born on December 16, 1714 in Gloucester, England. He was the seventh and last child of his parents, Thomas and Elizabeth Whitefield. The family made their living from running the Bell Inn. It was in the midst of the constant comings and goings of people at the Inn that George developed a love and appreciation for all types of people. When George was only two years old his Father died. As a result, his Mother ran the Inn with her children’s help, but still insisted that her children attend worship at the local parish. Early in his life George would preach “practice” sermons to his friends and siblings. He had a flair for the dramatic, and developed a mastery of illustrating Bible stories. Although he was not yet a Christian, his passion for the Word of God seemed evident even in his youth.
Pembroke College at the University of Oxford
It became Elizabeth’s aspiration that George would end up not as an Inn-keeper, but that he would attend Oxford University and become a minister in the Church of England. This lofty goal seemed impossible for they could not possibly afford such a high expense. Eventually, Elizabeth Whitefield discovered a way that her son could attend the University; he would go as a servitor meeting the needs of well-to-do gentlemen in exchange for tuition. He entered a preparatory school near Oxford in the Fall of 1730 at age fifteen, and was then formally received into Pembroke College at the University during his seventeenth year.
Both John and Charles Wesley were good friends to Whitefield during the early years of his Christian life–however later they became theological opponents…
Whitefield performed exceedingly well in his studies at Oxford University learning to read in both Greek and Latin. He was soon tested in his personal character as to whether he would follow the pattern of revelry and riotous living of his well-to-do classmates, or not. In this test he firmly resisted their invitations and gave himself over to a pursuit of holiness and study. It was because of his restrained lifestyle that he was noticed by other like-minded students and became close friends with John and Charles Wesley. This friendship was to last a lifetime and would become a significant influence upon his future ministry. The three men along with several other students were part of a private religious society which was committed to regular attendance at worship, the study of Scripture, the practice of prayer and fasting, and ministering to orphans and the imprisoned. They were derisively called by their critics the “Holy Club,” the “Bible Moths,” and the “Bible Bigots.” This group, though, became the proving ground of what, a short time later, would become known as the Methodist movement of the First Great Awakening.
Whitefield’s conversion came about through the reading of the devotional classic The Life of God in the Soul of Man, written by the Scotsman Henry Scougal (1650-1678). In this work Whitefield became acquainted with the doctrine of the “New Birth.” As he studied Jesus’ words in John 3:1-15 he hungered after this experience and earnestly prayed that God would make him “born again.” Wrongly, Whitefield thought that this could come about through deeds of self-denial, charity, and holiness. He constantly read his Greek New Testament, denied himself food and drink, confessed his sins with long detailed lists, and even contemplated giving up his association with the “Holy Club” since he felt so unworthy. Finally, after becoming extremely ill in the Spring of 1735 he fully cast himself upon Christ and rejected all efforts of works righteousness. God wonderfully opened his eyes and by the grace of God his heart was regenerated resulting in a genuine conversion. He writes of this time,
“God was pleased to remove the heavy load, to enable me to lay hold of his dear Son by a living faith, and by giving me the Spirit of adoption, to seal me, even to the day of everlasting redemption. O! with what joy—joy unspeakable—even joy that was full of and big with glory, was my soul filled when the weight of sin went off and an abiding sense of the love of God broke in upon my disconsolate soul! Surely it was a day to be had in everlasting remembrance. My joys were like a springtide and overflowed the banks.”
Dallimore, George Whitefield: Life and Times, Vol. 1, 77.
Once converted, Whitefield would habitually arise at 4 AM spending long hours on his knees reading his English Bible, studying each verb tense in Greek, and then considering the learned thoughts from Matthew Henry’s Commentary on the Bible. He made it his unique practice “to pray over every line and every word” in both English and Greek. These initial periods of fruitful study built a strong foundation of scriptural understanding that would last his entire lifetime. Once Whitefield graduated in 1736, he was ordained as a Deacon in the Church of England and began preaching in local parishes. He had a noticeable effect upon the spiritual apathy of his listeners and began to receive many invitations to speak.
Here is a fine example of an 18th Century sailing ship of the kind Whitefield traveled on to Georgia
In the midst of these successes Whitefield’s old friend from the “Holy Club,” John Wesley who was then serving in Georgia as a missionary, invited Whitefield to come to the colony as a missionary as well. After a brief time of consideration he determined to go. The crowds that attended his preaching were extremely sad to see him leave, but he was convicted that God had called him. While on ship, Whitefield let it be known that he was a clergyman, but this had little effect on the coarse behavior of the crew. Nevertheless, Whitefield asked God to give him an opportunity to proclaim the gospel—and He did give such an opportunity. As the days at sea wore on, Whitefield took it upon himself to tutor the sailors at reading and writing. He also began a small catechism class which began to grow as the days went by. Finally, he asked the Captain for permission to preach to the ship’s officers, whereupon the Captain granted him permission to speak to the entire ship’s company. A pulpit of sorts was built for him amid-ships out of thick wooden planks laid across two sturdy chairs. After preaching with great effect that day, the Captain asked him to preach again the next day. The other ships, of which there were two, jealously moved in closer to the lead ship so that they too could hear the twenty-three year old preacher. Imagine the sight of several hundred sailors, officers in their dress uniforms, soldiers in their red coats, and many passengers gathered on the three ships sailing side by side in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean! What a unique and memorable worship service that was! Eleven profitable months were spent in Georgia preaching the Word of God throughout the colony, and this one visit was to have a great effect on shaping Whitefield’s life work. Several of the colonists had died leaving orphans that desperately needed to be cared for. Whitefield’s heart went out to them and he determined to found an orphanage for them that would be called “Bethesda.” From then on wherever he preached, he called for an offering to help with the work of the Orphan House in Georgia.
Howell Harris (1714-1773)
Upon his return to England to be ordained as a Priest he resumed his itinerant preaching wherever he was invited, usually preaching two or three times each day of the week. However, burning in heart was a desire to try the open air preaching style that was beginning to bear fruit in Wales under the ministry of Howell Harris. His first opportunity came on a hill overlooking the entrance of a Welsh coal mine in 1739. The hardened and rough miners were wonderfully moved by the simple declaration of God’s Word. Whitefield could tell that he was reaching them by seeing the white furrows that their tears would leave down their smutty cheeks. Many other open-air preaching opportunities followed these initial successes with growing crowds numbered as large as 30,000 people. The First Great Awakening in England had fervently begun and the preaching of George Whitefield was at the forefront of this vast outpouring of spiritual renewal.
George Whitfield preaching to the Welsh coal miners at Bristol
Along with the continuous preaching that characterized the life of George Whitefield, there was also a vigorous commitment to starting organizations that would disciple the new converts. These groups were called “societies,” and met during the week for the purpose of Bible study, prayer, accountability, and service. It was the members of these initial societies that later became known as “Methodists.” Whitefield never intended to start an organization that would compete with the Church of England, however, over the years a determined hostility grew towards him so that in 1743 he accepted a position as the Moderator of the Calvinistic Methodists.
John Wesley at mid-career
Within the Methodist movement there developed a division over the nature of salvation. The central question was this: is each person so lost and unable to save himself that salvation is exclusively brought about by God (Calvinism), or is each person able to freely exercise his own will by choosing God in the matter of salvation (Arminianism)? George Whitefield’s sympathies lay squarely with a Calvinistic view, however, his friend and co-worker John Wesley opted for the Arminian view. Sparks flew between the two sides, prompted especially by John Wesley’s polemic tracts and verbal warnings against Whitefield’s Calvinism. To his credit, Whitefield strove to quietly resolve the issues. He wrote in his defense, “I embrace the Calvinistic scheme, not because Calvin, but Jesus Christ has taught it to me.” Eventually, he even stepped down from his position as head of the Calvinistic Methodists so that he could become “a servant of all.” It is for this reason that John Wesley has become known as the “father of Methodism,” rather than George Whitefield.
He traveled for the rest of his life preaching throughout England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Holland, and America—making thirteen crossings of the Atlantic Ocean in all. In America he worked with the Congregationalist Jonathan Edwards, Dutch Reformed Theodore Frelinghuysen, Presbyterians William and Gilbert Tennant, Baptists and Lutherans, and even with the agnostic scientist and statesman Benjamin Franklin—all of whom helped to shape the “Great Awakening” in the Colonies. During one six-week whirlwind preaching tour of New England in 1740, Whitefield set America on fire with spiritual revival. In forty-five days he preached over one hundred and seventy-five sermons to tens of thousands of listeners. His method of preaching was simple and direct. He had an extraordinary power to hold people spellbound from every walk of life. Benjamin Franklin estimated that he could be clearly heard in the open air by up to 30.000 people at one time. Whitefield was probably the earliest celebrity of America; wherever he went he was thronged by legions of listeners.
Whitfield was a eloquent preacher who held congregations spellbound with his gift of oratory
One famous account of his preaching was written by a farmer Nathan Cole. He reports,
“When I saw Mr. Whitefield come upon the scaffold he looked almost angelic, a young, slim, slender youth, before some thousands of people and with a bold, undaunted countenance…it solemnized my mind and put me in a trembling fear before he began to preach for he looked as if he was clothed with authority from the Great God. Hearing him preach gave me a heart wound [so that], by God’s blessing, my old foundation was broken up and I saw that my righteousness would not save me, then I was convinced of the doctrine of election and went right to quarreling with God about it because all that I could do would not save me…”
Dallimore, George Whitfield: Life and Times, Vol. 1, 541.
George Whitefield in his maturity
Whitefield suffered physically from all of his speaking and travel, but with rarely a complaint. Sometimes he was completely bed-ridden, but would revive while he stood in the pulpit and preach with great energy. Whitefield noted, “While at times he was weary in ministry, he never found himself becoming weary of ministry.” He endured repeated criticism from ecclesiastical foes of the Awakening who felt that it was so much “enthusiasm.” The common rabble abused him with interruptions, insults, and injury. Nevertheless, he genuinely sought to minister to all who came to his open-air preaching events. Some have criticized him for owning slaves and not speaking out forcefully enough on this issue. However, in his defense it must be noted that he received the slaves and a plantation as a gift from appreciative followers in South Carolina as a means of providing food and income for the Orphan House. In 1741 he married Elizabeth James, a widow ten years his senior, and enjoyed this relationship until her death in 1768. They had one child, a boy named John, who died a few months after birth. In 1748 he began a new dimension of his ministry—preaching to the nobility in London on a regular basis. These gatherings were sponsored by Lady Huntington, a generous financial supporter of the Awakening in England, and resulted in the conversion of many within English royal society. When in London he alternately preached in two massive buildings, the Tabernacle, constructed in 1741 by his enthusiastic supporters, and the Chapel, built in 1753 in an effort to reach a spiritually darkened part of the city. The ministry of these two congregations became the foundation of the evangelical movement in England for the next one hundred years. In 1768 Whitefield helped organize and promote a college for training preachers at Trevecca in Wales.
Rev. George Whitefield’s grave under the pulpit in the First Presbyterian Church in Newburyport, MA
Whitefield made his seventh and final trip to America in 1769 at fifty-three years of age. Although his health was quickly failing, his preaching was still powerful in its effects and thousands came to a saving knowledge of Jesus Christ. He died suddenly at Newburyport, Massachusetts, and is buried under the pulpit of the First Presbyterian Church. The whole nation grieved, Christian and non-Christian alike, for a man who spent himself “as a servant of all” had passed from the earth into the presence of his Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.
Here are five of my favorite books on the life and ministry of George Whitefield–each is a gem!
Resources for Further Study:
This is the first book on Whitefield I ever read–it was eye-opening!
Ahlstrom, Sydney E. A Religious History of the American People. 2 Volumes. Garden City, NY: Image Books, 1975.
Galli, Mark, ed. Christian History. Issue 38. Published by Christianity Today Inc.
Dallimore, Arnold A. George Whitefield: God’s Anointed Servant in the Great Revival of the Eighteenth Century. Wheaton,IL: Crossway Books, 1990.
Dallimore, Arnold A. George Whitfield: The Life and Times of the Great Evangelist of the 18th Century Revival. Two Volumes. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1970.
Douglas, J. D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Arminianism” by Robert G. Clouse
“Calvinism” by William S. Reid
“Calvinistic Methodism” by A. Skevington Wood
“Edwards, Jonathan” by Paul Helm
“England, Church of” by John A. Simpson
“Franklin, Benjamin” by Harry Skilton
“Great Awakening, The” by Bruce L. Shelley
“Harris, Howell” by Ian Sellers
“Methodist” by A. Skevington Wood
“Tennent, Gilbert” by Howard A. Whaley
“Wales” by R. Tudor Jones
“Wesley, Charles” by A. Skevington Wood
“Wesley, John” by A. Skevington Wood
“Whitefield, George” by Arthur Pollard
Douglas, J. D., ed. Who’s Who in Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.
Dowley, Tim, ed. The History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford: Lion Publishers, 1990.
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1984.
“Halfway Covenant” by Mark A. Noll
“Edwards, Jonathan” by Mark A. Noll
“New England Theology” Mark A. Noll
“New Light Schism” by W. A. Hoffecker
“Old School Theology” by W. A. Hoffecker
“Revivalism” by M. E. Dieter
“The Great Awakenings” by Mark A. Noll
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
This is a readily available biography on Whitefield’s life–its a good place to start if you want to know more!
Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity. 2 Volumes. Revised edition. New York: Harper & Row Publishers, 1975.
Lawson, Steven J. The Evangelisic Zeal of George Whitefield. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2013.
Lovelace, Richard F. Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varisty Press, 1979.
Marshall, Peter, and David Manuel. The Light and the Glory. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1977.
Murray, Iain H. Jonathan Edwards: A New Biography. Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1987.
Noll, Mark A. A History of Christianity in the United States. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing House, 1992.
Philip, Robert. The Life and Times of George Whitefield. First Published in 1837; Edinburgh, Scotland: Reprint, The Banner of Truth Trust, 2007.
This fine volume is a wonderful starting place for research on figures in American Christianity!
Reid, Daniel G., ed. Dictionary of Christianity in America. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990.
“Great Awakening” by H. S. Stout
“Whitefield, George” by H. S. Stout
Ryle, J. C. Christian Leaders of the Eighteenth Century. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1978.
Select Sermons of George Whitefield. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1958.
Tracy, Joseph. The Great Awakening: A History of the Revival of Religion in the time of Edwards and Whitefield. Originally published in 1842; Reprint, Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1976.
Wells, David F., ed. Eerdman’s Handbook to Christianity in America. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing House, 1983.
Woodbridge, John D., ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
“Edwards, Jonathan” by Paul Helm
“Wesley, John and Charles” by A. Skevington Wood
“Whitefield, George” by Arnold A. Dallimore
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2024 – All Rights Reserved
Following the earnest prayers of their pastor, Rev. John Robinson, the Pilgrims prepare to embark from Delfshaven, Holland to Southhampton, England, and thereafter to the New World.
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
“Therefore do not be anxious about tomorrow, for tomorrow will be anxious for itself. Sufficient for the day is its own trouble.” Matthew 6:34
Introduction:
William Bradford (1590-1657)
There exists a vast trove of eyewitness evidence to show the providential work of God in the life and circumstances of the Pilgrims. Three volumes in particular written during the formative years of Plymouth colony give us the the majority of the details. The first of these volumes is William Bradford’s Of Plymouth Plantation (written in 1651). Bradford joined with the Pilgrim congregation as a young man when they initially began to meet at Scrooby Manor back in England. In 1608 he immigrated along with them to the Netherlands and then in 1620 he made the journey on the Mayflower to the New World. Bradford served as the second Governor of the Plymouth Colony and was an “eyewitness” to all that happened to the Pilgrims. It is due to his personal discipline and his meticulous record-keeping that we know so much about what happened at Plymouth Plantation. His journal, On Plymouth Plantation, is a national treasure and the best known source of information on the Pilgrims and the establishment of their colony.
Edward Winslow (1595-1655)
In addition, Bradford’s friend and assistant, Edward Winslow, penned his own unique testimony about life in Plymouth Colony twenty-nine years before Bradford’s reflective volume. Winslow’s book is entitled Mourt’s Relation (written late in 1621) and it provides a colorful and optimistic report of all the adventures experienced by the Pilgrims in the establishment of their new colony. Winslow wrote his personal “relation” (or testimony) to a fellow-Pilgrim, George Morton. Morton was a passenger on the Speedwell, but had to remain in England when it proved to be unseaworthy. Winslow hoped that his short testimony of all that transpired in Plymouth, would encourage other English Separatists to cross the Atlantic Ocean in order to join the Plymouth Colony. George Morton himself and his entire family did exactly that by sailing from England in the pinnace Ann arriving at Plymouth late in the Fall of 1622.
Here is the title page of New England Memorial by Nathaniel Morton (1669)
The third volume of note is that written by Nathaniel Morton, George Morton’s son. Nathaniel served as the personal secretary to Governor William Bradford. Nathaniel Morton wrote a detailed history of the settlement at Plymouth Colony in 1669. It is simply called New England’s Memorial and has become one of the most quoted sources for assembling all of the details about the people, places, and events in early Plymouth. It records the names of the key residents, the results of local elections, and the outcome of major events–both good and bad–in the fledgling colony. One significant bit of information in New England’s Memorial is that it lists the forty-one names of those men who signed the Mayflower Compact in 1620. That list occurs nowhere else. The Mayflower Compact established the form of civil and legal government in New England. Without it the settlers who insisted they were no longer under any governing authority would have “become a law unto themselves.” But with it, both “Saints” (the Pilgrims) and and “Strangers” (the English settlers) formed a “body politic” that provided order, stability, and law.
It is clear from reading Bradford, Winslow, and Morton’s writings that these three men firmly believed in the providence of God. In brief, it can be stated that they resolutely affirmed that God was involved in the affairs of men. His “invisible hand” directed them in the multitude of discussions, debates, and decisons that were necessary to set-up a new colony. When difficult circumstances arose, they trusted that God would superintend all of the events of their life and that in the end these trials would prove to be for their benefit. This aspect of their faith gave them personal assurance and an unwavering confidence. The historic Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) defines the doctrine of “God’s Providence” in the following manner:
“God the great Creator of all things doth uphold, direct, dispose, and govern all creatures, actions, and things, from the greatest even to the least, by His most wise and holy providence, according to His infallible foreknowledge, and the free and immutable counsel of His own will to the praise of the glory of His wisdom, power, justice, goodness, and mercy.”
Westminster Confession of Faith, Chapter 5, Article 1
The Pilgrims were well-acquainted with this doctrine. They trusted God to “uphold, direct, dispose, and govern” all the circumstances of their life. Below are twelve notable examples of God’s providence in the life of the Pilgrims. These are an amazing display of God’s providential care for the Pilgrims and their colony.
Twelve Testimonies of the Providence of God:
1. The Pilgrims spent nearly twelve years in Leiden living in relative peace and safety (1608-1620). The Lord providentially delivered them from untold misery and death just prior to the resumption of war between the Netherlands and Spain when they determined to move to the New World.
The City of Leiden proved to be a peaceful location for the Pilgrims–but war was on the horizon!
— “After they had lived here for some eleven or twelve years,—the period of the famous truce between the Low Countries and Spain,—several of them having died, and many others being now old, the grave mistress, Experience, having taught them much, their prudent governors began to apprehend present dangers and to scan the future and think of timely remedy. After much thought and discourse on the subject, they began at length to incline to the idea of removal to some other place; not out of any new-fangled-ness or other such giddy humor, which often influences people to their detriment and danger, but for many important reasons, the chief of which I will touch upon…” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 19)
— “…for the twelve year’s truce was now over, and there was nothing but beating of drums and preparation for war. The Spaniard might prove as cruel as the savage of America, under the famine and pestilence as sore in Holland as across the seas.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 23)
— “At length the conclusion was reached that they should live as a separate body by themselves, under the general government of Virginia; and that through their friends they should sue his majesty to be pleased to allow them freedom of religion. That this might be granted they were led to hope by some prominent person of rank and influence, who had become their friends. Whereupon, two members of the congregation were sent to England at the expense of the rest, to arrange the matter. They found the Virginia company anxious to have them, and willing to grant them a patent, with as ample privileges as they themselves had or could grant and to give the best assistance they could…With this probability of success they urged that they should trust to God’s providence for the outcome, as they had done in other things.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 25-26)
— “So they left that good and pleasant city, which had been their resting place for nearly twelve years; but they knew they were pilgrims, and lifted up their eyes to the heavens, their dearest country, and quieted their spirits.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 49)
The Mayflower II is a replica of the original ship which carried the Pilgrims from Southampton, England across the Atlantic Ocean to New England
2. Having left the Netherlands, the Pilgrims went to England to finalize arrangements with the “Merchant Adventurers.” But they were delayed in sailing due to the Speedwell’s leaks (their 2nd hired ship) and some troublesome disputes with the “Merchant Adventurers,” their chief opponent being the contentious Thomas Weston. The Lord providentially protected them in the midst of these trials, reduced their number (like Gideon’s army), and increased their dependance upon Him as they embarked on their journey in the Mayflower.
The departure of the Mayflower from the quay at Southampton
— “…they set sail from Southampton, about the 5th of August…” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 56)
— “…Mr. Reynolds, the captain of the smaller ship, complained that he found her so leaky that he dare not go farther till she was mended. So the captain of the bigger ship, Mr. Jones, being consulted with, they both resolved to put into Dartmouth and have her mended…” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 57)
— “So with good hope they put to sea again, thinking they would go comfortably on, not looking for any more hindrances of this kind. But after they had gone 100 leagues beyond Land’s End holding together all the while, the captain of the small ship again complained that she was so leaky that he must bear up or sink at sea, for they could scarcely keep her afloat by pumping. So they consulted again, and both ships resolved to bear up again and put into Plymouth, which accordingly was done.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 57)
— “It was afterwards found that the leakiness of the ship was partly caused by being over-masted and too much pressed with sail; for after she was sold and put into trim she made many voyages, to the profit of her owners. But it was partly due to the cunning and deceit of the captain and his crew, who had been hired to stay a whole year at the Settlement, and now, fearing want of victuals, they plotted this stratagem to free themselves, as was afterwards confessed by some of them.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 58)
— A letter of Robert Cushman to Edward Southworth: “Our pinnace will not cease leaking, else I think we had been half way to Virginia. Our voyage hither has been as full of crosses as ourselves have been of crookedness…As for Mr. Weston, unless grace is with him he will hate us ten times more than ever he loved us, for not confirming the conditions…Friend, if ever we establish a colony, God works a miracle; especially considering how scanty our provisions will be and most of all how disunited we are among ourselves, and devoid of good leaders. Violence will break all.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 59-60)
— “After they enjoyed fair winds and weather for some time, they encountered cross winds and many fierce storms by which the ship was much shaken and here upper works made very leaky.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 62)
— “So they committed themselves to the will of God, and resolved to proceed.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 63)
Signing the Mayflower Compact in the New World
3. After a rough crossing of the Atlantic Ocean, the Pilgrims eventually landed at Cape Cod rather than in “Northern Virginia” due to their late sailing and serious storms. The Lord overruled any problems with the weather, and potential plots against them. In the end, He providentially brought the Pilgrims to a place of safety and isolation where they could establish their colony in peace. In New England they were able to live as “free men” and worship according to the Bible.
— “But to be brief, after long beating at sea, on November 11th they fell in with a part of the land called Cape Cod, at which they were not a little joyful…Having found a good haven and being brought safely in sight of land, they fell upon their knees and blessed the God of Heaven who had brought them over the vast and furious ocean, and delivered them from all the perils and miseries of it, again to set their feet upon the firm and stable earth, their proper element…As for the season, it was winter…Summer being done, all things turned upon them a weather-beaten face; and the whole country, full of woods and thickets, presented a wild and savage view.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 64-65)
— “Nevertheless, it is to be observed, that their putting into this place was partly by reasons of a storm by which they were forced in, but more especially by the fraudulence and contrivance of the aforesaid Mr. Jones, the master of the ship; for their intention, as before noted, and his engagement, as to Hudson’s river; but some of the Dutch having notice of their intentions, and having thoughts about the same time of erecting a plantation there likewise, they fraudulently hired the said Jones, by delays, while they were in England, and now under pretense of the shoals, etc, to disappoint them in their going thither: Of this plot betwixt the Dutch and Mr. Jones, I have had late and certain intelligence. But God out-shoots Satan oftentimes in his own bow; for had they gone to Hudson’s River as before expressed, it had proved very dangerous to them; for although it is a place far more commodious, and the soil more fertile, yet then abounding with a multitude of pernicious savages, whereby they would have been in great peril of their lives, and so the work of transplanting the gospel into these parts much endangered to have been hindered and retarded; but God so disposed, that the place where they afterwards settled was much depopulated by a great mortality amongst the natives, which fell out about two years before their arrival, whereby he made way for the carrying on of his good purpose in promulgating the gospel as aforesaid.” (Morton, New England’s Memorial, 13-14)
4. The Pilgrims found fresh water and a large cache of corn and beans at an abandoned Indian village on Cape Cod. Moreover, all sides survived a hostile “1st Encounter” between the Pilgrims and the local Indians. The Lord providentially provided for the needs and protection of His people.
— “…but they suffered most from want of water. At length they found some, and refreshed themselves with the first New England water they had drunk; and in their great thirst they found it as pleasant as wine or beer had been before.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 68)
— “Proceeding further, they saw stubble where corn had been grown the same year, and also found a place where a house had lately been, with some planks, and a great kettle and heaps of sand newly banked, under which they found several large baskets filled with corn, some in the ear of various colors, which was a very goodly sight they having never seen any like before.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 68)
— “They also found more corn, and beans of various colors. These they brought away, intending to give them full satisfaction when they should meet with any of them, —as about six months afterwards they did. And it is to be noted as a special providence of God, and a great mercy to this poor people, that they thus got seed to plant corn the next year, or they might have starved; for they had none, nor any likelihood of getting any, till too late for the planting season…But the Lord is never wanting unto His in their great need; let His holy name have all the praise.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 69)
“Thus it pleased God to vanquish their enemies, and give them deliverance; and by His special providence so to dispose that not one of them was hit, though the arrows came close to them, on every side, and some of their coats which were hung up in the barricade were shot through and through. Afterwards they gave God solemn thanks and praise for their deliverance, and gathered up a bundle of the arrows, and later sent them to England by the captain of the ship. They called the place The First Encounter.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 72)
Arrival at Plymouth Harbor–a rough and rocky wilderness!
5. After searching for a suitable location, the Pilgrims set-up their colony at Plymouth Bay which was formerly the site of the Patuxant Indian village. The Lord providentially brought them to a place of safety where the local Indians were reluctant to go (due to a severe plague that wiped-out the Patuxant Indian tribe a few years before).
— “On the 15th day of December they weighed anchor to go to the place they had discovered, and came within two leagues of it, but had to bear up again. On the 16th day the wind came fair, and they arrived safe in the harbor. Afterwards, they took a better view of the place, and resolved where to erect the first house for common use, to receive them and their goods.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 73-74)
— “This harbor is a bay greater than Cape Cod, compassed with a goodly land; and in the bay two fine islands, uninhabited, wherein are nothing but woods, oaks, pines, walnuts, beech, sassafras, vines, and other trees, which we know not. This bay is a most hopeful place; innumerable store of fowl, and excellent good; and cannot but be of fish in their seasons; skate, cod, turbot, and herring, we have tasted of; abundance of mussels, the greatest and best that ever we saw; crabs and lobsters, in their time, infinite. It is in fashion like a sickle, or fish-hook…We went a land, manned with the master of the ship and three or four of the sailors. We marched along the coast in the woods some seven or eight miles, but saw not an Indian house; only we found where they had planted their corn.” (Winslow, Mourt’s Relation, 35-36)
— “So in the morning, after we had called on God for direction, we came to this resolution, to go presently ashore again, and to take a better view of two places which we thought most fitting for us; for we could not now take time for further search or consideration, our victuals being much spent, especially our beer, and it being now the 19th of December. After our landing and viewing of places, so well as we could, we came to a conclusion, by most voices, to set on the main land, on the first place, on a high ground, where there is a great deal of land cleared, and have been planted with corn three or four years ago; and there is a very sweet brook runs under the hill side, and many delicate springs of good water as can be drunk, and where we may harbor our shallops and boats exceedingly well; and in this brook much good fish in their seasons; on the further side of the river also much ground cleared. In one field is a great hill, on which we point to make a platform, and plant our ordinance, which will command all round about…What people inhabit here we yet know not, for as yet we have seen none. So there we make our rendezvous, and a place for some of our people, about twenty, resolving in the morning to come all ashore and to build houses.” (Winslow, Mourt’s Relation, 37-38)
6. The Pilgrims suffered greatly through a terrible illness when “half of their company” died. The Lord providentially sustained them through this difficult affliction (a “dark providence”) and bountifully strengthened them to build their colony despite their great loss.
— “But soon a most lamentable blow fell upon them. In two or three months’ time half of their company died, partly owing to the severity of the winter, especially during January and February, and the want of houses and other comforts; partly to scurvy and other diseases, which their long voyage and their incommodious quarters had brought upon them. Of all the hundred odd persons, scarcely fifty remained, and sometimes two or three persons died in a day. In the time of the worst distress, there were but six or seven sound persons, who, to their great commendation be it spoken spared no pains night or day, but with great toil and at the risk of the their own health, fetched wood, made fires, prepared food for the sick, made their beds, washed their infected clothes, dressed and undressed them; in a word did all the homely and necessary service for them which dainty and queasy stomachs cannot endure to hear mentioned; and all this they did willingly and cheerfully, without the least grudging, showing their love to the friends and brethren; a rare example, and worthy to be remembered.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 76-77)
— “The spring now approaching, it pleased God the morality began to cease among them, and the sick recovered apace, which put new life into them all; thought they had borne their sad afflictions with as much patience and contentedness as I think any people could do. But it was the Lord who upheld them, and had beforehand prepared them, many having long born the yoke, yea, even from their youth.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 82-83)
7. In the Spring of 1621 the sudden appearance of Samoset, an enterprising and friendly Indian from the Northeast, greatly surprised the Pilgrims! He proved to be a blessing to the Plymouth Colony by introducing them to Massasoit, king of the Wampanoag Tribe, and more significantly to Squanto. This was a great providence of God!
— “About the 16th of March a certain Indian came boldly among them, and spoke to them in broken English, which they could well understand, but were astonished at it. At length they understood by speaking with him that he was not of these parts, but belonged to the eastern country where some English ships came to fish; and with some of these English he was acquainted, and could name several of them. From them he had got his knowledge of the language. He became useful to them in acquainting them with many things concerning the state of the country in the east parts where he lived, as also of the people there, their names and number, their situation and distance from this place, and who was chief among them. His name was Samoset; he told them also of another Indian, whose name was Squanto, a native of this part, who had been in England and our speak English better than himself. After some time of entertainment, being dismissed with gifts, in a little while he returned with five more, and they brought back all the tools that had been stolen, and made way for the coming of their great sachem, called Massasoit, who about four or five days after, came with the chief of his friends and other attendants, and with Squanto.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 79)
8. The timely arrival of Squanto, a friendly, God-fearing, English-speaking Indian, who knew the streets of London better than the Pilgrims, proved to be “a special instrument of God for their good, beyond their expectation” and a means of great blessing at Plymouth Colony. Squanto taught the Pilgrims the “ways of the Indians”–how to plant corn, how to harvest fish in the bay, and how to hunt deer.
— “After this he [Massasoit] returned to his place, called Sowams, some forty miles off, but Squanto stayed with them, and was their interpreter, and became a special instrument of God for their good, beyond their expectation. He showed them how to plant their corn, where to take fish and other commodities, and guided them to unknown places, and and never left them till he died. He was a native of these parts, and had been one of the few survivors of the plague hereabouts.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 80)
— “The settlers, as many as were able, they began to plant their corn, in which service Squanto stood them in good stead, showing them how to plant it and cultivate it. He also told them that unless they got fish to manure this exhausted old soil, it would come to nothing, and he showed them that in the middle of April plenty of fish would come up the brook by which they had begun to build, and taught them how to catch it, and where to get other necessary provisions; all of which they found true by experience. They sowed some English seed, such as wheat and pease, but it came to no good, either because of the badness of the seed or the lateness of the season or some other defect.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 84-85)
— “After these things [Massasoit and the peace treaty] he returned to his place called Sowams, about forty miles distant from Plymouth, but Squanto continued with them, and was their interpreter, and proved a special instrument sent of God for their good, beyond expectation; he directed them in planting their corn, where to take their fish, and to procure their commodities; and also was their pilot to bring them to unknown places for their profit, and never left them until his death. He was a native of this place where Plymouth is and scarce any left besides himself. He was carried away (with divers others) by one named Hunt, a master of a ship, who thought to sell them for slaves in Spain, but he got away to England, and was entertained by a merchant in London, and employed to Newfoundland and other parts; and a last brought hither into these parts by one Mr. Dermer, a gentleman enployed by Sir Fernando Gorges and others, for discovery, and other designs in these parts; of whom I shall say something, because it is mentioned in a book set forth ann. 1622, by the president and council for New-England, That he made peace between the savages of those parts and the English, of which this plantation (as it is intimated) had the benefit: And what a peace it was may appear by what befell him and his men.” (Morton, New England’s Memorial, 27-28)
King Massasoit and Edward Winslow smoke a pipe to conclude the peace treaty between the Wampanoags and the Pilgrims
9. In God’s providence a treaty of non-aggression was established between the Indians and the Pilgrims; with the help of Squanto (their interpreter), Edward Winslow, and Massasoit (King of Wampanoags). This pact lasted for over fifty years (1621 until 1675 when King Phillips War began).
— “With him…they made a peace which has now continued twenty-four years. These were the terms: (1) That neither he nor any of his, should injure or harm any of their people. (2) That if any of his did any harm to any of theirs, he should send the offender, that they might punish him. (3) That if anything were taken away from any of theirs, he should cause it to be restored; and they should do the like to his. (4) If any made unjust war against him, they would aid him; if any made war against them, he should aid them. (5) He should send to his neighboring confederates, to certify them of this, that they might not wrong them, but might be likewise comprised in the condition of peace. (6) That when their men came to them, they should leave their bows and arrows behind them. After this he returned to his place, come forty miles off, but Squanto stayed with them…” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 79-80)
10. The untimely death of John Carver [the 1st Governor of the Pilgrims] brought about the providential succession of leadership to William Bradford [the 2nd Governor of the Pilgrims]. Bradford provided steady civil government for the Pilgrims from 1621 until his death in 1657.
— “This April, while they are busy sowing their seed, their Governor, Mr. John Carver, one hot day, came out of the field very sick. He complained greatly of his head and lay down, and within a few hours his senses failed. He never spoke again, and died, a few days after. His death was much lamented, and depressed them deeply, with good cause. He was buried in the best manner possible, with some volleys of shot by all that bore arms; and his wife, a weak women, died five or six weeks after him. Shortly after, William Bradford was chosen governor in his stead, and having not yet recovered from his illness, in which he had been near the point of death, Isaac Allerton, was appointed assistant to him. These two, by renewed election each year, continued several years together. This I here note, once for all.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 85)
Elder William Brewster leads the Pilgrims and their guests in a prayer of thanksgiving to God
11. The first Thanksgiving Day celebration was observed by the Pilgrims in October, 1621. This feast was due to an abundant harvest and a desire to sincerely thank the Lord for His provision in their time of great need.
— “Our harvest being gotten in, our governor sent four men on fowling, so that we might after a special manner rejoice together after we had gathered the fruit of our labors. They four in one day killed as much fowl as, with a little outside help beside, served the company almost a week. At which time, amongst other recreations, we exercised our arms, many of the Indians coming amongst us, and among the rest their great king Massasoit, with some ninety men, whom for three days we entertained and feasted, and they went out and killed five deer, which they brought to the plantation and bestowed on our governor, and upon the captain and others. And although it be not always so plentiful as it was at this time with us, yet by the goodness of God, we are so far from want, that we often wish you partakers of our plenty.” (Winslow, Mourt’s Relation, 72)
— “They began now to gather in the small harvest they had, and to prepare their houses for the winter, being well recovered in health and strength, and plentifully provisioned: for while some had been thus employed in affairs away from home, others were occupied in fishing for cod, bass, and other fish, of which they caught a good quantity, every family having their portion. All the summer there was no want. And now, as winter approached, wild fowl began to arrive, of which there were plenty when they came here first, though afterwards they became more scarce. As well as wild fowl, they got abundance of wild turkeys, besides venison, etc. Each person had about a peck of meal a week, or now, since harvest, Indian corn in that proportion; and afterwards many wrote at length about their plenty to their friends in England,—not feigned but true reports.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 89)
— “And thus thy found the Lord to be with them in all their ways, and to bless their out-goings and in comings: For which let his holy name have the praise forever. Being now well recovered in respect of health (as has been said) they began to fit up their buildings against winter, and received in their harvest, and had great plenty of fowl and fish, to their great refreshing.” (Morton, New England’s Memorial, 36)
12. In November 1621 the providential arrival of a ship in Plymouth harbor, the Fortune, with thirty-five young men provided a much needed boost in physical labor for the Pilgrims. With this increased strength they built a stockade around the colony, soldiers were provided for the militia, and a general momentum increased as these young men began to serve the colony.
Plymouth Plantation after a stout stockade was built
— “In November about 12 months after their arrival, there came a small ship unexpectedly, bringing Mr. Cushman (so much spoken of before), and with him 35 persons to remain and live in the plantation; at which they rejoiced not a little. And the new arrivals, when they came ashore and found all well, and saw plenty of victuals in every house, were no less glad. Most of them were healthy young men, many of them wild enough, who had little considered what they were undertaking,—till they reached the harbor of Cape Cod, and there saw nothing but a naked and barren place…The plantation was glad of this addition of strength, but could have wished that many of them had been of better class, and all of them better furnished with provisions; but that could not now be helped.” (Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, 90)
Concluding Remarks:
In these twelve remarkable events in the life of the Pilgrims, we witness the Providence of God on full display. Without the guidance of God’s “invisible hand” the Pilgrims would surely have perished–by the deceits of men, by the perils of the sea, or by the immense difficulties of settling in a foreign wilderness. The Lord protected them through many challenging circumstances and helped them to prevail in establishing their colony. The Lord surely did “uphold, direct, dispose, and govern all creatures, actions, and things” for the benefit of the Pilgrims. As you reflect on all that the Lord did for the Pilgrims, perhaps you can agree with me in proclaiming, “May God be praised!”
Pilgrim families on their way to worship on the Sabbath Day
Sources of Information:
Bradford, William. Of Plymouth Plantation: 1608-1650. Harold Paget, ed. Bulverde, TX: Co-Published by The Vision Forum and Mantle Ministries, 1998.
Bradford, William. Of Plymouth Plantation (1620-1647). Samuel Eliot Morison, ed. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006.
Morton, Nathaniel. New England’s Memorial. Originally published in Boston, MA: Congregational Board of Publication, 1669; Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Ecco, Reprint, 2018.
The Westminster Confession of Faith and Catechisms. London, England: 1647; Reprint, Willow Grove, PA: The Committee on Christian Education of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, 2005.
Winslow, Edward. Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. Jordan D. Fiore ed. Reprint, Plymouth, MA: Plymouth Rock Foundation, 1985.
Here are my three primary sources–thankfully, they are all still in print!
Here are four other books on the Pilgrims that I have used over the years–each one is a treasure!
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2023 – All Rights Reserved
School of Discipleship – Winter/Spring Term (2023)–class begins January 15
Redeemer Presbyterian Church in Austin, TX
Class Description:
What is the meaning of the term “Presbyterian?” Many people automatically think of a church that is “ruled by elders”—and that would certainly be true. There is so much more, however, to the term “Presbyterian” than just a particular form of church government. There are theological doctrines, church practices, and a style of worship that makes Presbyterianism rather unique in comparison to other forms of Christianity. Moreover, there is a fascinating history that stretches from the Scottish Covenanters during the Reformation all the way to the Presbyterian Church in America during this modern era. Join us for a rich tour through Presbyterian history and theology. You will learn about many aspects of Presbyterianism—some that may be entirely new to you—and you will learn it from two dedicated Presbyterian Pastors.
Class Instructors:
— Rev. Jonathan Herr, Assistant Pastor at Redeemer Presbyterian Church
— Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, Pastor of Christian Discipleship at Redeemer Presbyterian Church
Recommended Books:
Hart, Darryl G. and John R. Muether. Seeking a Better Country: 300 Years of American Presbyterianism. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishers, 2007.
Hart, Darryl G. and John R. Muether. With Reverence and Awe: Returning to the Basics of Reformed Worship. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishers, 2002.
Fortson III, S. Donald. The Presbyterian Story: Origins and Progress of a Reformed Tradition. Second Edition. Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2013.
Leith, John H. Introduction to the Reformed Tradition:A Way of Being the Christian Community. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1977.
Lucas, Sean M. On Being Presbyterian: Our Beliefs, Practices, and Stories. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishers, 2006.
The Confession of Faith and Catechisms. American Edition (1788). Jointly published by Great Commission Publications (PCA) in Atlanta, GA, and the Committee on Christian Education (OPC) in Willow Grove, PA, 2005.
“Whereas it is the duty of all nations to acknowledge the providence of Almighty God, to obey His will, to be grateful for His benefits, and humbly to implore His protection and favor; and Whereas both Houses of Congress have, by their joint committee, requested me to recommend to the people of the United States a day of public thanksgiving and prayer, to be observed by acknowledging with grateful hearts the many and signal favors of Almighty God, especially by affording them an opportunity peaceably to establish a form of government for their safety and happiness. Now, therefore, I do recommend and assign Thursday, the 26th day of November next, to be devoted by the people of these States to the service of that great and glorious Being who is the beneficent author of all the good that was, that is, or that will be.” —George Washington (October 3, 1789)
What exactly is Presbyterianism? A belief in Presbyterianism is distinguished by three essential marks: (1) a belief in the sovereignty of God, (2) a belief in covenant theology, and (3) a belief in a church government led by elders. Presbyterian doctrines and practices are summarized in the historic Westminster Confession of Faith(1647) and the Westminster Larger and Shorter Catechisms. The practical outworking of these beliefs can be found in the Book of Church Order used by various Presbyterian denominations. The church historian, Dr. S. Donald Fortson III, describes who Presbyterians are in this way,
Being Presbyterian involves multiple layers of identity and connection. As Christians, Presbyterians are “catholic,” sharing the common heritage of ancient Christianity with all believers, of all times, in all places. Presbyterians are Protestant by conviction sharing the rich spiritual heritage of the sixteenth century in reaffirming the primacy of Scripture and the rediscovery of the Gospel. Within the sixteenth century Protestant Reformation, Presbyterians identify themselves uniquely with one of the church families known as the “Reformed Tradition.” In this stream, Presbyterians view themselves in special connection to the reforms of John Calvin, John Knox and the English Puritans. Historically, Presbyterians are also part of the evangelical movement; that is, they have embraced the legacy of the eighteenth century revivals (awakenings) in America and Britain and thus believe in the necessity of conversion experience, personal holiness and being missional. Each of these historic layers is equally important to Presbyterian identity…
S. Donald Fortson III, The Presbyterian Story, 7
The Sovereignty of God:
The Bible teaches that God is in control of all events, both the good and the bad. Sovereignty means that God rules and reigns in the midst of all circumstances, accomplishing all of his holy will (Genesis 50:19-21; Psalm 103:19; Proverbs 16:4; Ecclesiastes 7:14; Acts 2:22-24; Romans 8:28; James 1:2-4; 1 Peter 1:6-9). This does not mean that God is responsible for the evil behavior of men, rather that all men are “without excuse” for their sins and will answer to God for their wicked behavior (Matthew 25:31-32, 46; Romans 2:1-16, 14:10-12; 2 Corinthians 5:10). The doctrine of sovereignty in regard to salvation is best summarized by the “Doctrines of Grace” (which are also known as The Five Points of Calvinism):
John Calvin (1509-1564)
T – Total Depravity or Total Inability (Genesis 3:1-24, 6:1-8; Jeremiah 17:9-10; Mark 7:14-23; John 1:12-13; Romans 1:18-32, 3:9-18, 23, 6:23, 9:16). [Versus Human Ability or Pelagianism or Semi-Pelagianism]
L – Limited Atonement or Definite Atonement or Particular Redemption (Isaiah 53:4-6; Jeremiah 31:31-34; Matthew 20:28; John 10:1-5, 14-15, 27-29). [Versus Universal Redemption or General Atonement or Amyraldianism]
I – Irresistible Grace or Efficacious Grace (John 11:43-44; Acts 9:1-19, 16:14; John 6:44, 10:1-5, 27; 1 Corinthians 2:14; 2 Corinthians 2:15-16). [Versus Resistance of the Holy Spirit by Human Ability]
P – Perseverance of the Saints or Eternal Security (Matthew 6:16-20, 24:13; John 3:3-8, 6:37, 39, 47, 10:27-29, 15:8; Romans 10:8-10; Ephesians 1:13-14; Philippians 1:6, 2:12-13; 1 Peter 1:3-5; 1 John 5:13). [Versus Falling from Grace or Losing One’s Salvation]
A Covenant Theology:
Johannes Cocceius (1603-1669)
God has related to a certain people throughout history—His people. Thinking of National Israel as the people of God was the initial pattern for understanding this doctrine. However, it is clear that, “…they are not all Israel who are descended from Israel” (Romans 9:6). Thus, God’s people are those who are the spiritual descendants of Abraham rather than the physical descendants of Abraham (cf. Romans 2:28-29, 9:6-8; Galatians 3:7-9, 29; Ephesians 2:13-22). The relationship that God has enjoyed with His people has been shown through a series of expanding covenants. Each covenant had blessings that came with obedience and curses that came with disobedience. Each covenant is progressive, in that through time God has revealed more of His redemptive plan to successive generations. The ultimate expression of God’s covenantal relationship is revealed in the New Covenant which is accomplished by the redemptive work of Jesus Christ on the Cross. God’s covenant people are Believers, their children, and all who are in the visible church (cf. Genesis 12:2-3, 17:7-11; Deuteronomy 5:1-21, 7:7-9, 10:16; Psalm 103:17-18; Jeremiah 31:27-34; Acts 2:39; Romans 2:28-29; 1 Corinthians 7:14; Galatians 3:6-9, 29; Ephesians 2:14-16, 3:6-7; Hebrews 9). There are two Sacraments ordained by Jesus Christ: the Lord’s Supper and Baptism. The Lord’s Supper is a memorial feast where Christ is spiritually present in the hearts of every Believer–as taught by Martin Bucer, John Calvin, John Knox, Charles Hodge, A. A. Hodge, etc. Believers, both adult and children, are admitted to the Lord’s Table upon giving a credible confession of faith to the elders of the local church. Both adult Believer’s baptism and infant baptism are practiced in Presbyterian churches as a sign of our identification with Christ and and our entrance into the visible church. Infant baptism is based upon the covenant made by God with Abraham and all of his descendants (Genesis 17:7-14). The children of Believers are part of the covenant by virtue of their birth and are thereby entitled to its benefits and liable under its sanctions (cf. Acts 2:38-39; 1 Corinthians 7:14; Ephesians 6:1-4). In the New Testament the practice of circumcision has been superseded by baptism (Colossians 2:11-12).
A Church Government Led by Elders:
John Knox (1514-1572)
The Old Testament speaks of the practice of appointing elders. For example, Jethro gave his son-in-law Moses wise advice concerning the difficulty of leading the entire nation of Israel all by himself (Exodus 18:17-27). He urged Moses to pick out men of sound character to oversee all of the minor disputes. Moses would then be able to decide the major disputes that the elders could not handle. This practice was a prelude to the New Testament paradigm that would be developed by the Jesus Christ when he selected his disciples (Mark 3:13-19). The New Testament uses the Greek word presbuteros to refer to “elders,” and “older men” (Titus 2:2). For example, Paul instructed Timothy and Titus, both of whom were younger pastors, to seek out mature men to serve the local church as overseers or elders (2 Timothy 2:2). The specific qualifications for these local church leaders are given so that the character of each candidate might be thoroughly evaluated by the congregation (1 Timothy 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). After evaluating a man’s life, doctrine, family, and character the church confirms the calling of God by electing that man an elder. Duly elected elders can serve Christ’s Church in several different capacities, such as Evangelists, Pastors, and Teachers (Ephesians 4:11). There are two other Greek words implying Church authority that the Bible speaks of as well: diakonos (deacon) and episkopos (overseer or bishop). Within a Presbyterian form of government deacons are elected by the congregation for the purpose of meeting the physical needs of the people, visiting the sick, and administering the possessions of the Church. In many respects, the Presbytery serves as the episkopos over a group of churches in a specific region, and is made up of the all the regional elders. Rather than investing authority in a single individual to serve as a bishop, the collective wisdom of a plurality of godly elders is emphasized in decision-making for the whole Church. Beyond that, the Church has an annual meeting of elders from all the regional Presbyteries for the purpose of gathering together in a General Assembly (Acts 15:1-35).
American Presbyterian Denominations (Current List):
— Presbyterian Church USA (PCUSA) [1,302,000 members]
— Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) [384,000 members]
— Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC) [145,000 members]
— Covenant Order of Evangelical Presbyterians (ECO) [121,000 members]
— Cumberland Presbyterian Church (CPC) [87,000 members]
— Korean Presbyterian Church in America (KPCA) [55,000 members]
— Korean American Presbyterian Church (KAPC) [53,000 members]
— Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (ARP) [39,000 members]
— Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC) [30,000 members]
— Reformed Presbyterian Church US (RPC) [7,800 members]
— Bible Presbyterian Church (BPC) [3,500 members]
— Covenant Presbyterian Church (CPC) [13 churches]
— Reformed Presbyterian Church, General Assembly (RPCGA) [7 churches]
— Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States (RPCUS) [3 churches]
Source: “List of Presbyterian and Reformed denominations in North America” (Wikipedia, Accessed 4-29-2021) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Presbyterian_and_Reformed_denominations_in_North_America
Select Bibliography:
Dr. Loraine Boettner (1901-1990)
Boettner, Loraine. The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination. Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, 1932.
Clouse, Robert G. “Covenant Theology” in The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. J. D. Douglas, ed. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Fortson III, S. Donald. The Presbyterian Story: Origins and Progress of a Reformed Tradition. 2nd Edition. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2017.
Hart, Darrel G. and John R. Muether. Seeking a Better Country: 300 Years of American Presbyterianism. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2007.
Hodge, Archibald A. Outlines of Theology. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, Reprint, 1972.
Jellema, Dirk. “Predestination” in The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. J. D. Douglas, ed. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Lawson, Steven J. Foundations of Grace (1400 BC – AD 100): A Long Line of Godly Men. Volume One. Sanford, FL: Reformation Trust Publishers, 2006.
Lawson, Steven J. Pillars of Grace (AD 100 – 1564): A Long Line of Godly Men. Volume Two. Sanford, FL: Reformation Trust Publishers, 2011.
Dr. John H. Leith (1919-2002)
Leith, John H. An Introduction to the Reformed Tradition. Revised Edition. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1977.
Loetscher, Lefferts A. A Brief History of the Presbyterians. Third Edition. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1978.
Lucas, Sean Michael. On Being Presbyterian: Our Beliefs, Practices, and Stories. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2006.
McKim, ed., Donald K. Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992.
McNeill, John T. The History and Character of Calvinism. London, England: Oxford University Press, 1954.
Reid, W. Stanford. “Presbyterianism” in The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. J. D. Douglas, ed. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Reymond, Robert L. A New Systematic Theology of the Christian Faith. Second Edition. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1998.
Dr. R. C. Sproul (1939-2017)
Sproul, R. C. What Is Reformed Theology? Understanding the Basics. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1997.
Steele, David N., Curtis C. Thomas, S. Lance Quinn. The Five Points of Calvinism: Defined, Defended, and Documented. Second Edition. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2004.
Wells, David F., ed. Reformed Theology in America: Southern Reformed Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1989.
Wells, David F., ed. Reformed Theology in America: The Princeton Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1989.
Westminster Confession of Faith and Catechisms. Willow Grove, PA: The Committee on Christian Education of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, Reprint, 2008.
White, Henry A. Southern Presbyterian Leaders 1683-1911. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, Reprint, 2000.
Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2021 – All Rights Reserved
For they were “…looking forward to the city that has foundations, whose designer and builder is God.” Hebrews 11:10
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
It was four hundred years ago that a group of English Separatists–later known as “the Pilgrims”–arrived in New England. They had just endured an arduous journey across the storm-tossed Atlantic Ocean. They were anxious to establish a new colony where they could worship God as the Bible dictated, raise their children with a minimum of worldly influences, and live as freemen building their own homes and businesses. With a great sense of hope they scouted out the regions around Cape Cod and chose a site for their colony that seemed to present the best situation for building a village. Edward Winslow describes it this way,
Edward Winslow (1595-1655)
“So in the morning, after we had called on God for direction, we came to this resolution, to go presently ashore again, and to take a better view of two places which we thought most fitting for us; for we could not now take time for further search or consideration, our victuals being much spent, especially our beer, and it being now the 19th of December. After our landing and viewing of places, so well as we could, we came to a conclusion, by most voices, to set on the main land, on the first place, on a high ground, where there is a great deal of land cleared, and have been planted with corn three or four years ago; and there is a very sweet brook runs under the fill side, and many delicate springs of good water as can be drunk, and where we may harbor our shallops and boats exceedingly well; and in this brook much good fish in their seasons; on the further side of the river also much ground cleared. In one field is a great hill, on which we point to make a platform, and plant our ordinance, which will command all round about…What people inhabit here we yet know not, for as yet we have seen none. So there we make our rendezvous, and a place for some of our people, about twenty, resolving in the morning to come all ashore and to build houses.”
Edward Winslow, “Mourt’s Relation,” 37-38
Coming ashore they stepped off the shallop onto a large flat rock–which in later years would be remembered as “Plymouth Rock”–and they began the challenging task of carving a village out of the raw wilderness. In God’s providence, this site proved to have been an area which in the past had supported an Indian village. There were cleared fields and abundant resources for their future prosperity all around; but not a single Indian! They now just had to build shelters so that they could get through the cold winter months.
Plymouth Colony (c.1622)
With an abiding hope and every expectation of God’s blessing they set about the work of constructing a stout store house, building a few small cabins, cutting lots of firewood, and stockpiling whatever food they could find for the lean months ahead. Regarding their character, Pastor John Robinson and Elder William Brewster had noted in a letter to one of their financial backers, “We are not like some, whom small things discourage, or small discontents cause to wish themselves at home again.” No, these people were made of sterner stuff! They knew that they were “Pilgrims” and they looked “forward to the city that has foundations, whose designer and builder is God.” (Heb. 11:10).
Many years after the Pilgrims had established their colony, Gov. William Bradford wrote the following reflection on all that had happened:
Thus out of small beginnings greater things have grown by His hand Who made all things out of nothing; and gives being to all things that are; and as one small candle may light a thousand, so the light enkindled here has shone to many, yea, in a sense, to our whole nation; let the glorious name of Jehovah have all the praise.
— William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Ch. XI, page 226.
What can we take away from this? First of all, we can admire the determination and tenacity of the Pilgrims. They suffered greatly, but despite a multitude of trials they refused to give up. This is a great lesson for every one of us! Secondly, we can resolve to be people like them; that having settled on a godly path we forthrightly persevere in it–setting aside all distractions–and forge ahead to the end. There are, perhaps, many other lessons to draw from the Pilgrims. But these two are sufficient for the day. Like the Pilgrims let us resolve that, “We are not like some, whom small things discourage.” Instead, we are those who steadily work towards fulfilling all that the Lord has set before us.
These three books are full of “eyewitness accounts” from the Pilgrims–what superlative resources!
Sources:
Bradford, William. Of Plymouth Plantation. Bulverde, TX: Published by The Vision Forum, Inc. and Mantle Ministries, 1998.
Gragg, Rod. The Pilgrim Chronicles: An Eyewitness History of the Pilgrims and the Founding of Plymouth Colony. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2014.
Windslow, Edward. Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims of Plymouth. Jordan D. Fiore, ed. Plymouth, MA: Plymouth rock Foundation, 1985.
Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2020 – All Rights Reserved
Moving day, during the hot Summer of 1751, was a subdued experience for the family of America’s foremost theologian Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758). Reluctantly, he and his burgeoning family were relocating from their beloved home in Northampton, Massachusetts, to begin a new life and ministry amongst the Indians on the frontier. After their bags were packed and the wagons fully loaded the entire entourage set off down the long dusty road to Stockbridge, Massachusetts—never to return to the pristine village that had been their home for 23 years. Leaving Northampton was difficult for many reasons: it was here that Jonathan had begun his full-time Christian ministry under the watchful training of his maternal Grandfather, Rev. Solomon Stoddard; it was in this very city that the initial stirrings of the “First Great Awakening” began (1735-1740); and it was here that Jonathan and Sarah had birthed and raised their twelve children. Yet, many of the townspeople wanted Jonathan Edwards and his family to leave—why would they be sending away one of the greatest theologians that America had yet produced? In order to thoroughly answer this question some of the background of Jonathan Edwards must be examined.
Jonathan Edwards was born in the country village of East Windsor, Connecticut, on October 5, 1703. He was the son of a Congregational minister, Rev. Timothy Edwards, and his mother Esther Stoddard. His parents educated him at home along with his ten sisters. Young Jonathan’s interests knew no bounds as he vigorously examined the realms of literature, physical science, philosophy, and biblical studies writing several insightful compositions in each field. In many respects, he was a childhood prodigy who eventually excelled in Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. At age 13 he was encouraged to attend the Collegiate School of Connecticut (which later became Yale University), and he graduated at age 17 in 1720 with an A.B. degree. About this same time he read 1 Timothy 1:17, “Now to the King eternal, immortal, invisible, the only God, be honor and glory forever and ever. Amen.”, and had an “evangelical awakening” which fulfilled his own deep-seated spiritual longing. Upon reflection he wrote in his journal,
“As I read the words, there came into my soul, and was as it were diffused through it, a sense of the glory of the Divine Being; a new sense, quite different from any thing I ever experienced before…from about that time, I began to have a new kind of apprehensions and ideas of Christ, and the work of redemption, and the glorious way of salvation by him. An inward, sweet sense of these things, at times, came into my heart; and my soul was led away in pleasant views and contemplations of them. And my mind was greatly engaged to spend my time in reading and meditation on Christ, on the beauty and excellency of his person, and the lovely way of salvation by free grace in him.”
This personal commitment to Christ started him on a life-time quest of thinking and writing about “true religion.” His desire to further study the Bible and philosophy was so great that he stayed at Yale College for two years of additional study. While there he was contacted to serve as a “student supply” Pastor at a Scottish Presbyterian Church in New York City; which he did for six months further confirming his call to the Christian ministry. After receiving his M.A. degree in 1723 he was hired a short time later to serve as a tutor at Yale.
Academic studies, though, were not his exclusive interest while in New Haven for he became distracted by a young lady in a prominent family—Miss Sarah Pierpont. Early on in their relationship he described 13 year old Sarah on the inside cover of his Greek Grammar with these words,
“…They say there is a lady in (New Haven) who is beloved of the Great Being, who made and rules the world, and there are certain seasons in which this Great Being, in some way or other invisible, comes to her and fills her mind with exceeding sweet delight, and that she hardly cares for any thing, except to meditate on him—that she expects after a while to be received up where he is, to be raised up out of the world and caught up into heaven; being assured that he loves her too well to let her remain at a distance from him always…She has a strange sweetness in her mind, and singular purity in her affections; is most just and conscientious in all her conduct; and you could not persuade her to do any thing wrong or sinful, if you would give her all the world, lest she would offend this Great Being. She is of a wonderful sweetness, calmness and universal benevolence of mind; especially after this Great God has manifested himself to her mind. She will sometimes go about from place to place, singing sweetly; and seems to be always full of joy and pleasure; and no one knows for what. She loves to be alone, walking in the fields and groves, and seems to have some one invisible always conversing with her…”
Winslow, ed., Jonathan Edwards: Basic Writings, 66-67
Sarah Edwards
Prior to the making of any formal plans for marriage with Sarah, Jonathan knew that he would have to provide for his new family and so he gladly received a call to be the Assistant Pastor of his grandfather’s church in Northampton, Massachusetts. This was the largest Congregational Church west of Boston, with 600 members, and it was here that he was ordained to the gospel ministry in 1726. Still much smitten with Sarah Pierpont they married in 1728 and she became his life’s partner for the next 31 years. Many years later near the end of his earthly life, Jonathan Edwards wrote a oft-quoted letter to his wife giving thanks to God for the “uncommon union” that they enjoyed through out the many years of married life. Together they raised twelve children and persevered through all of the challenges of pastoral ministry. The Lord blessed them with a large godly posterity and a much appreciated spiritual legacy.
Rev. Soloman Stoddard
In 1729 Jonathan assumed the role of Senior Pastor when his grandfather, Rev. Solomon Stoddard, retired from his pastoral charge. During his Northampton ministry, besides preaching and catechizing the children, he strongly promoted evangelical revival. Many of the townspeople had been raised by Christian parents, but they had drifted from the Puritan beliefs of their forefathers and no longer had a hunger for the knowledge of God. Jonathan’s prayers were sovereignly answered by God and revival broke out in Northampton during 1734-1737. On one eventful Sunday over one hundred new converts were received into Church membership. He called this period of awakening “the work of God,” for Edwards did not see this as a passing excitement nor something brought about through the efforts of man—it was an outpouring of God’s divine Spirit regenerating hardened human hearts. Other occurrences of revival also began to sweep through the American Colonies. Both George Whitefield (an English evangelist) and Gilbert Tennant (a Presbyterian Pastor) were used mightily of God in furthering the awakening all along the Eastern seaboard, but it was Jonathan Edwards who became known as the leading spokesmen and defender of this spiritual awakening. The return to historic Christianity that God had instigated among the American Colonists would become in time the spiritual foundation for the American War for Independence in the 1770’s.
Throughout Edwards’s ministry he defended a warm-hearted evangelical Calvinism that emphasized the sovereignty of God over all human events. He firmly resisted the attacks against the Great Awakening by the Unitarians, Deists, and skeptics. Edwards also wrote many notable books on the revival such as: A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God (1737), Some Thoughts Concerning the Present Revival (1741), and A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections (1746). Edwards wrote,
“As in worldly things worldly affections are very much the spring of men’s motion and action; so in religious matters the spring of their actions is very much religious affections. He that has doctrinal knowledge and speculation only, without affection, never is engaged in the business of religion. Nothing is more manifest in fact, than that the things of religion take hold of men’s souls no further than they affect them…I am bold to assert that there never was any considerable change wrought in the mind or conversation of any person, by anything of a religious nature that ever he read, heard or saw, who had not his affections moved…In a word, there never was anything considerable brought to pass in the heart of life of any man living, by the things of religion, that has not his heart deeply affected by those things.”
Edwards, “Religious Affections,” quoted by Lane, in “A Concise Dictionary of Christian Thought,” 188
These scholarly works provided a biblical and theological framework for the Great Awakening. He is probably best known for his sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741), which although read in a monotone voice produced anguished cries of repentance in his listeners. Here is one small section which equally features the holy wrath and divine grace of God,
“The God that holds you over the pit of hell, much as one holds a spider or some loathsome insect over the fire, abhors you and is dreadfully provoked. His wrath towards you burns like fire; he looks upon you as worthy of nothing else, but to be cast into the fire; he is of purer eyes than to bear to have you in his sight; you are ten thousand times more abominable in his eyes than the most hateful venomous serpent is in ours. You have offended him infinitely more than ever a stubborn rebel did his prince—and yet it is nothing but his hand that holds you from falling into the fire every moment.”
Edwards, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” quoted by Lane, in “A Concise Dictionary of Christian Thought,” 187)
One of the heated controversies ignited by Edwards while serving in Northampton surrounded the qualifications for receiving the Lord’s Supper. Rev. Solomon Stoddard, Jonathan Edwards’s grandfather, adopted the provisions of the “Half-way Covenant” (1662) within his congregation. It states,
“The children of Church members are members of the Church as well as their parents, and do not cease to be members by becoming adult, but do still continue in the Church, until in some way of God they be cast out; and…they are subject to Church-discipline, even as other members, and may have their children baptized before themselves be received to the Lord’s Supper; and yet that in this way there is no tendency to the corrupting of the Church by unworthy members, or of the Ordinances by unworthy partakers.”
“The Half-Way Covenant,” 1662; quoted in “Eerdman’s Handbook to Christianity in America,” 41)
This ecclesiastical agreement allowed unconverted baptized members to take the Lord’s Supper based on the profession of faith of their parents. Edwards argued that the Lord’s Supper was not a “converting ordinance” and that only professing Christians should partake of it. Open conflict erupted on all sides. Because of his opposition to the “Half-way Covenant” Edwards was forced out of the church in Northampton and eventually became a pastor to a small frontier congregation of settlers and Indians in Stockbridge, Massachusetts (1750). Some grieved the loss of Jonathan Edwards, while on the other hand many rejoiced to see him depart Northampton. Little did they know that they had rejected the greatest theological mind in America at that time.
Although physically arduous, the seven years in Stockbridge proved to be a fruitful period of reflection and writing for Edwards. He finished his definitive defense against an encroaching Arminianism, The Freedom of the Will (1750), where he shows the futility of the belief that man “cooperates” with God in the matter of salvation. The “New Birth,” he asserted, comes about solely by God’s gracious activity in the life of one who is spiritually dead. He also wrote a brilliant exposition entitled “The Great Christian Doctrine of Original Sin” (1758) challenging the popular notion that man is inherently good.
Nassau Hall at Princeton University completed in 1758
The reputation of Jonathan Edwards grew rapidly during these years of relative exile in Stockbridge. In 1757 Edwards was approached to become the President of the College of New Jersey (later to become Princeton University and Seminary). In January 1758 Edwards moved to Princeton, but the town was in the throes of a smallpox epidemic and so he received an inoculation as an example to his students. Disastrous consequences resulted and he died of a secondary infection in March 1758. Thus passed from the scene a truly great man of God who not only positively influenced his family, but who also shaped the thinking of many generations of Christians.
An Addendum:
Jonathan and Sarah Edward’s grave in the Old Cemetery in Princeton, New Jersey
On April 8, 2013 my family and I stood before the graves of Jonathan and Sarah Edwards. They are both buried together in the Old Cemetery at Princeton, New Jersey. Here is the legacy of an “uncommon union” between a husband and wife who were married for thirty-one years. Their marriage is a testimony of how two individuals, who though very different from each other, were able with God’s help to weave their lives together into an unbreakable bond. Even though they died apart from one another they exemplify a couple whom God blessed even in their deaths. For that reason they are buried together in a unified grave. Soli Deo Gloria
—Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Sources for Further Study:
Ahlstrom, Sydney E. A Religious History of the American People. 2 Volumes. Garden City, NY: Image Books, 1975.
Dodds, Elisabeth D. Marriage to a Difficult Man: the “Uncommon Union” of Jonathan and Sarah Edwards. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1971.
Edwards, Jonathan. The True Believer: The Marks and Benefits of True Faith. Don Kistler, ed. Morgan, PA: Soli Deo Gloria Publications, 2001.
Edwards, Jonathan. The Works of Jonathan Edwards. 2 Volumes. Edinburgh, Scotland: Banner of Truth Publishers, Reprint, 1975.
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1984.
“Halfway Covenant”, by Mark A. Noll
“Jonathan Edwards”, by Mark A. Noll
“New England Theology”, by Mark A. Noll
“New Light Schism”, by W. A. Hoffecker
“Old School Theology”, by W. A. Hoffecker
“Revivalism”, by M. E. Dieter
“The Great Awakenings”, by Mark A. Noll
Gerstner, Edna. Jonathan and Sarah: An Uncommon Union. Morgan, PA: Soli Deo Gloria Publications, 1995.
Gerstner, John H. Jonathan Edwards: A Mini-Theology. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1987.
Haykin, Michael A. G. A Sweet Flame: Piety in the Letters of Jonathan Edwards. Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2007.
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Lane, Tony. A Concise Dictionary of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.
Lawson, Steven J. The Unwavering Resolve of Jonathan Edwards. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2008.
Lovelace, Richard F. Dynamics of Spiritual Life: An Evangelical Theology of Renewal. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1979.
Marshall, Peter, and David Manuel. The Light and The Glory. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1977.
Murray, Iain H. Jonathan Edwards: A New Biography. Carlisle, PA: Banner of Truth Publishers, 1987.
Noll, Mark A. A History of Christianity in the United States. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman’s Publishing House, 1992.
Noll, Mark A., Nathan O. Hatch, George M. Marsden, David F. Wells, John D. Woodbridge, eds. Eerdman’s Handbook to Christianity in America. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman’s Publishing House, 1983.
Reid, Daniel G., Robert D. Linder, Bruce L. Shelly, Harry S. Stout, eds. Dictionary of Christianity in America. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990.
Sparks, Jared, ed. Lives of Jonathan Edwards and David Brainerd. In The Library of American Biography. Volume VIII. Boston: Hilliard, Gray, and Company, 1837.
Samuel Miller, “Life of Jonathan Edwards”
William B. O. Peabody, “Life of David Brainerd”
Tracy, Joseph. The Great Awakening. First published in 1842; Reprint, Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1976.
Winslow, Ola Elizabeth, ed. Jonathan Edwards: Basic Writings. New York, NY: Penguin Publishing Group, 1966.
Woodbridge, John D., ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Dr. Marcus Serven, ThM and DMin The Genevan Foundation – Copyright August, 2013 – All Rights Reserved.
It is clear when you read the writings of Rev. David Brainerd (1718-1747) that he firmly believed in the providence of God. In brief, it can be stated that he affirmed that God was involved in the affairs of men. God’s “invisible hand” directed Brainerd in a multitude of personal decisions that were necessary to carry out his missionary work with the American indians. When difficult circumstances arose, and they did many times over, he trusted that God was superintending all of the events of his life and that in the end these trials would prove to be for his own benefit, or for the benefit of others. This aspect of Brainerd’s faith gave him a deep personal assurance and a firm resolute confidence. Consider now this gripping example of God’s providential care in David Brainerd’s life:
“Tomahawks in hand, the Indians crept toward the strange tent. As they cautiously peered under the flap, their intention to kill was forgotten. There, in the center of the tent was a man on his knees. As he prayed, a rattlesnake crossed his feet and paused in a position to strike. But the snake did not strike. It lowered its head again and glided out of the tent. It was a long time later when David Brainerd, the man in the tent, found out why the Indians at the village received him with such honor as they did. He had expected that they would want to kill him. The reason for their change of heart was the report their comrades had brought of the marvelous thing they had seen. The Indians looked upon David Brainerd as a messenger from the Great Spirit, which indeed he was. In all good work the protection of God is with the worker.”
Tan, Paul Lee. “Encyclopedia of 7700 Illustrations: Signs of the Times.” Rockville, MD: Assurance Publishers, 1979, #2031
The historic Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) defines the doctrine of “Providence” in the following manner: “God the great Creator of all things doth uphold, direct, dispose, and govern all creatures, actions, and things, from the greatest even to the least, by His most wise and holy providence, according to His infallible foreknowledge, and the free and immutable counsel of His own will to the praise of the glory of His wisdom, power, justice, goodness, and mercy.” (WCF, Chapter 5, Article 1) David Brainerd was well-acquainted with these words since he had memorized them as a child. In short, he trusted God to “uphold, direct, dispose, and govern” all the circumstances of his life. And the Lord, did not let him down.
“How beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of him who brings good news, who publishes peace, who brings good news of happiness, who publishes salvation, and says to Zion, ‘Your God reigns!’ ” Isaiah 52:7
Brainerd’s Journal and Diary
At this time of accelerating interest in Christian missions, it is prudent for Christians everywhere to remember the life, work, and words of a sincere and diligent missionary to the American Indians. The Rev. David Brainerd (1718-1747) lived as a minister of the gospel amongst the Indians for five years until he was overtaken by the ravages of tuberculosis. During that time he conducted lengthy preaching missions with the Indians in places such as Kaunaumeek, at the forks of the Delaware River, the Susquehanah valley, Crossweeksung, and Cranbury. He preached the gospel to thousands of Indians in a time of spiritual “Awakening” throughout New England, and wondrously saw God open the hearts of hundreds. Brainerd went head to head with the pagan religion of the Indians, and saw it for what it actually was—the worship of evil spirits, superstitious slavery to local Shamans, and cruel and unkind treatment of women, children, the aged, and captives. In his Journal and personal Diary he chronicles numerous events which showed the American Indians to be illiterate and without any spiritual hope. Nevertheless, he loved the Indians as those who needed to gain the assurance of eternal life. He did not seek to change their cultural practices, except where these were expressly forbidden in the pages of the Bible. Moreover, he sought to encourage literacy and contemporary practices of farming among them. David Brainerd has become a model of the effective and dedicated missionary for our age and in the past. Let us review the specific events of his short, but energetic, life.
David Brainerd
David Brainerd was born on April 20, 1718 at Haddam, Connecticut the third son of his father (Worshipful Hezekiah Brainerd) and his mother (Dorothy Hobart Brainerd). David came from a family background of lawyers on his father’s side and of ministers on his mother’s side. He grew up in a large rollicking family of nine children, five boys and four girls. His father unexpectedly died when he was nine years old, and he was left a complete orphan by age fourteen upon his mother’s untimely death. It seemed certain that he was destined to become a Connecticut farmer working the land that he had inherited from his parents while taking care of his younger siblings. It was during these teenage years that Brainerd became increasingly interested in Christianity. He wrongly thought that by performing “deeds of religion” God would find favor in him. He transparently wrote about this period,
When about twenty years of age, I applied myself to study and was now more engaged than ever in the duties of religion. I became very watchful over my thoughts, words, and actions; and thought I must be sober indeed, because I designed to devote myself to the ministry; and imagined I did dedicate myself to the Lord…My manner of life was now exceedingly regular and full of religion, such as it was; for I read my Bible more than twice through in less than a year, spent much time every day in prayer and other secret duties, gave great attention to the Word preached, and endeavored to my utmost to retain it. So much was I concerned about religion that I agreed with some young persons to meet privately on Sabbath evenings for religious exercises, and thought myself sincere in these duties…In short I had a very good outside, though not sensible of it.
Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, 58-59.
Fortunately, God broke into the midst of his erroneous way of thinking and he was profoundly converted in 1739. It was by the mercy of God and the abandonment of “works righteousness” that his heart was opened to the transforming wonders of the “new birth.” He subsequently entered Yale College to pursue ministerial preparation and theological studies. In this erudite institution he excelled as a student relishing in his studies of theology and the Bible. As in many people’s life, there can often be a “defining moment” that shapes that person’s attitudes in a negative way or a positive way—in 1742 such an event happened to Brainerd. His biographer, Jonathan Edwards, explains what occurred,
And it once happened that he and two or three…intimate friends were in the hall together, after Mr. Whittelsey, one of the tutors, had been to prayer there with the scholars; no other person now remaining in the hall but Brainerd and his companions. Mr. Whittelsey having been unusually pathetical in his prayer, one of Brainerd’s friends on this occasion asked him what he thought of Mr. Whittelsey; he made the answer, “He has no more grace than this chair.” One of the freshmen happening at this time to be near the hall (though not in the room) overheard those words. This person, though he heard no name mentioned and knew not who was thus censured, informed a certain woman in the town, withal telling her of his own suspicion, namely that he believed Brainerd said this of someone or other of the rulers of the college. Whereupon she went and informed the Rector, who sent for this freshmen and examined him. He told the Rector the words he heard Brainerd utter and informed him who were in the room at that time. Upon which the Rector sent for them: they were very backward to inform against their friend what they looked upon as a private conversation, and especially as none but they had heard or knew of whom he had uttered those words; yet the rector compelled them to declare what he had said, and of whom he had said it…for these things he was expelled from the college.
Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, Appendix 1, 381-382.
Rev. Gilbert Tennant
Although Brainerd could have harbored ill feelings toward the Rector and the College, and allowed his frequent melancholy spirit to dominate him with sorrow, he did not. Instead, he saw these events as the divine providence of God and as a means of humbling him for future service to God’s kingdom. In addition, as a leader amongst the students Brainerd was heavily criticized for his attendance at a nearby revival meeting where the fiery Presbyterian preacher the Rev. Gilbert Tennant (1703-1764) was speaking. Rev. Tennant had become famous by his sermon “The Dangers of an Unconverted Ministry.” In this message he criticized the New England clergy for their uniform lack of evidence of regeneration. Such animosity was generated by Tennant’s sermon, which had been widely published, that the Rector at Yale had forbidden the students to attend any meetings where he was speaking. Brainerd, out of curiousity, attended a meeting and when this became known Brainerd was unable to assuage the authorities—their minds were made up to make an example of him for the rest of the students. As a result, he never graduated although he stood first in his class at the time of his expulsion.
A few years later, Brainerd actually attended Commencement Day proceedings at Yale College when he would have graduated. At the urging of others he submitted a public confession and apology to the directors of the college. They voted to readmit Brainerd so that he could continue his studies, but since he was then deeply engaged in his ministry to the Indians he reluctantly declined. For him what could have been an extremely bitter experience, was used by the Lord to further refine his character and prepare him for the hardships of missionary service. Here was a man who was willing to go and do exactly what God required of him, no matter what the personal sacrifice.
Brainerd pursued private studies in divinity through several ministers and in short order received his License to preach. Although he had several invitations to preach in established settlements and towns he felt sure that God had called him to spread the gospel to the Indians. Thus, in November of 1742 he was commissioned as a missionary of the “Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge” (also known as the S.P.C.K.). This organization had been founded in 1709 to encourage missionary work amongst American Indians. He began a permanent work near Stockbridge, Massachusetts among the Indians and settlers. His daily Diary reads not as an adventure story, living in the wilderness in the midst of heathen savages, but as a sober chronicle of preaching to a people that he truly came to love as his brothers. Here is a revealing entry from his Diary,
I live in the most lonesome wilderness; have but one single person to converse with, that can speak English (the Indian who served as Brainerd’s interpreter, Wauwaumpequunnaunt). Most of the talk I hear is either Highland Scotch or Indian. I have not a fellow Christian to whom I might unbosom myself or lay open my spiritual sorrows; with whom I might take sweet counsel in conversation about heavenly things and join in social prayer. I live poorly with regard to the comforts of this life. Most of my diet consists of boiled corn, hasty-pudding, etc. I lodge on a bundle of straw, my labor is hard and extremely difficult, and I have little appearance of success, to comfort me. The Indians have no land to live on but what the Dutch people lay claim to; and these threaten to drive them off. They have no regard for the souls of the poor Indians; and by what I can learn, they hate me because I come to preach to them. But what makes all my difficulties grievous to be borne is that God hides His face from me.
Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, 124.
Rev. George Whitefield
During the years that David Brainerd was laboring in the wilderness, the preaching of the itinerant Anglican evangelist, Rev. George Whitefield (1714-1770), was being mightily used by God to further revival in America. Those who favored the Great Awakening were referred to as the “New Lights” or the “New Side Presbyterians.” Although, Brainerd was congregational in his understanding of church polity, he did have an appreciation for the work of God’s Spirit in the revival and strongly identified with the “New Lights.” He felt that New England was being drenched by “showers of God’s Grace” through the preachers of the Awakening. Essentially, “New Light” theology was a warm-spirited evangelical Calvinism which emphasized man’s complete inability to respond to the offer of the gospel. Salvation was seen as completely of God’s grace, without a shred of human cooperation. This became the studied view and firm belief of David Brainerd. Over the five years of missionary service he labored at several locations in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey. In June 1744 he was ordained by the Presbytery of Newark, New Jersey. By November 1745 he had ridden over 3,000 miles on horseback throughout the American wilderness. A typical entry in his Diary reads like this,
Lord’s Day, April 10. Rose early in the morning and walked out and spent a considerable time in the woods, in prayer and meditation. Preached to the Indians, both forenoon and afternoon. They behaved soberly in general; two or three in particular appeared under some religious concern, with whom I conversed privately. One told me her heart had cried ever since she heard me preach first.
Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, 120.
David Brainerd in the saddle
During the final two years of his ministry in the forests of New Jersey he saw “a remarkable work of grace” with the conversion of more than one hundred and thirty Indians. He baptized thirty-eight Indians and formed churches at Crossweeksung, and Cranbury. He lovingly referred to the Indians in these congregations as “my people.” Brainerd’s general pattern of ministry consisted of daily preaching, frequent spiritual counseling, and evening catechism. This revival was thoroughly described in his Journal which was published in 1746. Consider this entry from that year,
Lord’s Day, December 29. Preached from John 3:1-5. A number of white people were present, as is usual upon the Sabbath. The discourse was accompanied with power, and seemed to have a silent, but deep piercing influence upon the audience. Many wept and sobbed affectionately. There were some tears among the white people, as well as the Indians. Some could not refrain from crying out, though there were not so many exercised, but the impressions made upon their hearts appeared chiefly by extraordinary earnestness of their attention, and their heavy sighs and tears. After public worship was over, I went to my house, proposing to preach again after a short season of intermission. But they soon came in one after another, with tears in their eyes, to know “what they should do to be saved.” The Divine Spirit in such a manner set home upon their hearts what I spoke to them that the house was soon filled with cries and groans. They all flocked together upon this occasion, and those whom I had reason to think in a Christless state were almost universally seized with concern for their souls. It was an amazing season of power among them, and seemed as if God “had bowed the heavens, and come down.”
Jonathan Edwards, ed., Life and Diary of David Brainerd, 265.
Rev. Jonathan Edwards
It was in April of 1747 he had a serious bout with the tuberculosis from which he had suffered from for years. This illness finally led to his having to leave the work with the Indians that he loved so much. His younger brother, John Brainerd, eagerly continued the ministry with David’s Indian congregation at Cranbury, New Jersey. In July of 1747 he retreated to the home of his old friend, Rev. Jonathan Edwards, for recuperation. While there Brainerd became engaged to be married to Jonathan Edward’s oldest daughter, Jerusha. She lovingly nursed him during his agonizing illness, yet he finally succumbed to the effects of tuberculosis on October 9, 1747 and died at twenty-nine years of age. Sadly, Jerusha Edwards also contracted tuberculosis and she died on February 14, 1748, five months after Brainerd’s death. She was 19 years old at the time of her death. In recognition of the love they shared for each other, Jerusha Edwards was laid to rest in a grave next to David Brainerd in the Old Cemetery in Northampton, MA.
Following Brainerd’s his death, his work was fully taken over by his younger brother, John Brainerd. In 1749 Jonathan Edwards published a stirring account of his Diary and Journal which has had a deep influence on Christian missionaries through the years. Such notables as William Carey, Henry Martyn, and Thomas Coke were deeply influenced by Brainerd’s activities and attitudes. This account has become a devotional classic used by God to encourage hundreds to become missionaries in the Lord’s work. In closing, consider these stirring words of David Brainerd as he reflected on the purpose of his life, “I longed to be as a flame of fire, continually glowing in the Divine service, preaching and building up Christ’s kingdom to my latest, my dying hour.” He fulfilled his purpose, and he faithfully served his Lord unto his “dying hour.” Soli Deo Gloria!
David Brainerd’s grave at the Old Cemetery in Northampton, Mass.
An Addendum:
On July 6, 2009, we (the Serven family) diligently searched for Brainerd’s grave in the Old Cemetery of Northampton, MA. Alas, we could not find it. However, my wife Cheryl spotted a county worker and asked for the location of the grave site. The worker replied that he would be glad to show us where it was and then laughingly remarked that it was only “Bible-thumpers” who seemed to be interested in finding that particular grave. As we stood before David Brainerd’s grave I was glad to be considered a “Bible-thumper” since he also suffered the ridicule of the world for the sake of his Lord, Jesus Christ. We noted that Jerusha Edwards was buried right next to him, although sadly her gravestone has now fallen over. Nearby, can be found the grave of Rev. Solomon Stoddard (Jonathan Edwards’ maternal grandfather), and the graves of several members of the extended Edwards family. To us, this is holy ground.
Jerusha Edward’s grave is placed right next to her Beloved’s grave
Resources for Further Study:
Ahlstrom, Sydney E. A Religious History of the American People. 2 Volumes. Garden City, NY: Image Books, 1975.
Douglas, J. D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Brainerd, David,” by J. G. G. Norman
“Calvinism,” by W. S. Reid
“Edwards, Jonathan,” by Paul Helm
“Eliot, John” by J. D. Douglas
“Great Awakening, The,” by Bruce L. Shelley
“Presbyterianism,” by W. S. Reid
“Tennent, Gilbert,” by Howard A. Whaley
“Whitefield, George,” by Arthur Pollard
Edwards, Jonathan, ed. The Life and Diary of David Brainerd. Originally published in Boston, MA: 1749; Reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1989.
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001.
“Edwards, Jonathan,” by Mark A. Noll
“New England Theology,” by Mark A. Noll
“New Light Schism,” by W. A. Hoffecker
“Old School Theology,” by W. A. Hoffecker
“Revivalism,” by M. E. Dieter
“The Great Awakenings,” by Mark A. Noll
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Marshall, Peter, and David Manuel. The Light and the Glory. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1977.
Murray, Iain H. Jonathan Edwards: A New Biography. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1987.
Noll, Mark A. A History of Christianity in the United States. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans Publishing House, 1992.
Reid, Daniel G., ed. Dictionary of Christianity in America. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1990.
“Brainerd, David,” by J. Conforti
“Edwards, Jonathan,” by J. H. Edwards
“Edwards, Sarah Pierpont,” by R. A. Tucker
“Eliot, John,” by G. W. Harper
“Great Awakening,” by H. S. Stout
“Missions, Evangelical Foreign,” by H. M. Conn
“Missions to Native Americans, Protestant,” by M. S. Joy
“New Lights,” by H. S. Stout
“New Side Presbyterians,” by A. C. Guelzo
“Old Lights,” by H. S. Stout
“Old Side Presbyterians,” by A. C. Guelzo
“Revivalism,” by W. G. Travis
“Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge,” by E. C. Nordbeck
“Tennant, Gilbert,” by S. T. Logan
Wells, David F., ed. Eerdman’s Handbook to Christianity in America. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdman’s Publishing House, 1983.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2018 – All Rights Reserved
