Just south of the border of Scotland is the narrowest part of England. This seventy-five mile stretch runs from Carlisle in the west to Newcastle upon Tyne in the east. Long ago a stout rock wall was constructed by three legions of Roman soldiers over this entire distance by order of the Roman Emperor, Hadrian (76-138 AD. Begun in 122 AD the wall was completed after six years of labor. What was its purpose? Some historians have suggested that it was built to “keep the Scots out,” and others have argued that it was built to “keep the English in.” Perhaps, it was built for both reasons. But in any case, it was a clear statement of Roman authority within the region. It marks the frontier between civilized Roman Britannia and the unconquered Scots of Caledonia.
Here is an outline of a mile-castle where 20-30 soldiers would be stationed. Note the space for a gate where merchants and travelers could pass through. Taxes were collected accordingly.
Here are some interesting features about the wall: It runs straight across this narrow part of northern England–up and down hills, across pristine farmland, from one side of England to the other. It is not as high as it was when initially envisioned. The plan was that it would be twelve feet high, but in some places it was only eight feet tall due to a shortage of rock. Remarkably, the mortar used to build the wall is still holding the stones together nearly 1900 years after it was built! Once the Romans left Britannia in the early 400’s, the local people started cannibalizing the stones for other purposes. The rocks were a perfect building material for roads, fences, houses, barns, and churches. Today, the wall is mostly a ruin that appears from time to time along its ancient path. Throughout the course of the wall large forts, mile-castles, and turrets were constructed. There are gates built in the wall for trade and taxation. Also for defensive purposes, ten foot deep ditches–called a Vallum–run parallel to the wall on both sides. Sharpened wooden spikes were placed in the ditches to slow down marauding barbarian armies. Roman soldiers often looked at this duty as a cold and dreary posting–far from family, friends, and decent food. They felt as if they were on the edge of the civilized world; and in many respects they were!
Here is “Sycamore Gap” made famous by the film “Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves” (1991)
Besides the legions of Roman soldiers that were garrisoned along the wall, several small towns sprung up a few miles south of the wall. Who lived in them? There were Roman officials in charge of supplies, priests serving in the local temple, farmers growing food and caring for animals, plus a bevy of skilled workmen who constructed the buildings, cisterns, and roads. Moreover, the families of some of the older and more-experienced soldiers lived in these communities. These towns represented a small outpost of Roman culture and civilization in a foreign land. One such town was Vindolanda. Its ruins have provided a treasure trove of relics and information into ancient Roman culture. We visited the ongoing archeological excavation at Vindolanda and were astonished by the large number of items that were being found on this site. In particular, there are lots leather shoes–amazingly preserved in the clay-like soil of Northumbria. Excavators have also found wooden tablets with all the normal correspondence you might find in any Roman city–military reports, to do lists, letters to be sent home, grocery lists, invitations to parties, etc. There is an extensive collection of shoes and tablets on display in the museum.
The ruins of Vindolanda are yielding new treasures day by day and giving a glimpse into Roman culture
I highly recommend you visit Hadrian’s Wall and Vindolanda! Both sites give a fascinating picture of what life was like in ancient Roman culture. And for those who are stout in body and heart, hiking excursions can be arranged that follow the path of Hadrian’s Wall. We saw several groups making the trek while crossing the English countryside–its so very beautiful!
For they were “…looking forward to the city that has foundations, whose designer and builder is God.” Hebrews 11:10
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
It was four hundred years ago that a group of English Separatists–later known as “the Pilgrims”–arrived in New England. They had just endured an arduous journey across the storm-tossed Atlantic Ocean. They were anxious to establish a new colony where they could worship God as the Bible dictated, raise their children with a minimum of worldly influences, and live as freemen building their own homes and businesses. With a great sense of hope they scouted out the regions around Cape Cod and chose a site for their colony that seemed to present the best situation for building a village. Edward Winslow describes it this way,
Edward Winslow (1595-1655)
“So in the morning, after we had called on God for direction, we came to this resolution, to go presently ashore again, and to take a better view of two places which we thought most fitting for us; for we could not now take time for further search or consideration, our victuals being much spent, especially our beer, and it being now the 19th of December. After our landing and viewing of places, so well as we could, we came to a conclusion, by most voices, to set on the main land, on the first place, on a high ground, where there is a great deal of land cleared, and have been planted with corn three or four years ago; and there is a very sweet brook runs under the fill side, and many delicate springs of good water as can be drunk, and where we may harbor our shallops and boats exceedingly well; and in this brook much good fish in their seasons; on the further side of the river also much ground cleared. In one field is a great hill, on which we point to make a platform, and plant our ordinance, which will command all round about…What people inhabit here we yet know not, for as yet we have seen none. So there we make our rendezvous, and a place for some of our people, about twenty, resolving in the morning to come all ashore and to build houses.”
Edward Winslow, “Mourt’s Relation,” 37-38
Coming ashore they stepped off the shallop onto a large flat rock–which in later years would be remembered as “Plymouth Rock”–and they began the challenging task of carving a village out of the raw wilderness. In God’s providence, this site proved to have been an area which in the past had supported an Indian village. There were cleared fields and abundant resources for their future prosperity all around; but not a single Indian! They now just had to build shelters so that they could get through the cold winter months.
Plymouth Colony (c.1622)
With an abiding hope and every expectation of God’s blessing they set about the work of constructing a stout store house, building a few small cabins, cutting lots of firewood, and stockpiling whatever food they could find for the lean months ahead. Regarding their character, Pastor John Robinson and Elder William Brewster had noted in a letter to one of their financial backers, “We are not like some, whom small things discourage, or small discontents cause to wish themselves at home again.” No, these people were made of sterner stuff! They knew that they were “Pilgrims” and they looked “forward to the city that has foundations, whose designer and builder is God.” (Heb. 11:10).
Many years after the Pilgrims had established their colony, Gov. William Bradford wrote the following reflection on all that had happened:
Thus out of small beginnings greater things have grown by His hand Who made all things out of nothing; and gives being to all things that are; and as one small candle may light a thousand, so the light enkindled here has shone to many, yea, in a sense, to our whole nation; let the glorious name of Jehovah have all the praise.
— William Bradford, Of Plymouth Plantation, Ch. XI, page 226.
What can we take away from this? First of all, we can admire the determination and tenacity of the Pilgrims. They suffered greatly, but despite a multitude of trials they refused to give up. This is a great lesson for every one of us! Secondly, we can resolve to be people like them; that having settled on a godly path we forthrightly persevere in it–setting aside all distractions–and forge ahead to the end. There are, perhaps, many other lessons to draw from the Pilgrims. But these two are sufficient for the day. Like the Pilgrims let us resolve that, “We are not like some, whom small things discourage.” Instead, we are those who steadily work towards fulfilling all that the Lord has set before us.
These three books are full of “eyewitness accounts” from the Pilgrims–what superlative resources!
Sources:
Bradford, William. Of Plymouth Plantation. Bulverde, TX: Published by The Vision Forum, Inc. and Mantle Ministries, 1998.
Gragg, Rod. The Pilgrim Chronicles: An Eyewitness History of the Pilgrims and the Founding of Plymouth Colony. Washington, DC: Regnery Publishing, 2014.
Windslow, Edward. Mourt’s Relation: A Journal of the Pilgrims of Plymouth. Jordan D. Fiore, ed. Plymouth, MA: Plymouth rock Foundation, 1985.
Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2020 – All Rights Reserved
“Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.” Matthew 5:10
John Wycliffe
John Wycliffe (c.1330-1384) was born to a propertied family in Yorkshire, England. His parents encouraged him toward service in the English Church and sent him at sixteen years of age to study at Oxford University, which was recognized as one of the most learned centers of education in Europe. Here he excelled in his studies, and in time he became a noted scholar in philosophy and theology. He was profoundly influenced by Augustine’s writings on the sovereignty of God and adopted his view on the doctrine of election. Eventually, he taught at Oxford as a regular lecturer where his preaching and teaching were well received by the students and faculty alike. In 1360 the University rewarded Wycliffe for his academic skills and selected him to become the Master of Balliol College. Clearly, Wycliffe was favored by both God and men. Further studies resulted in a Master of Arts degree in 1361, a Bachelor of Divinity degree in 1369, and a Doctor of Divinity degree in 1372. During these years of studying, teaching, and preaching he wrote many important works in the areas of philosophy and theology. He was a prolific writer and preacher. His best known work was his Summa Theologica which was published near the end of his life. In gratitude for his excellent scholarship, the leaders of the English Church awarded him the position of Rector at the parish in Lincolnshire (1361), however he spent very little time there. It was the custom of the day for many scholarly men to hire a local priest to serve as pastor in their absence. In this way they had a financial base for ongoing studies and the prestige of holding a parish title, or an “ecclesiastical living.”
Balliol College at Oxford University
Oxford University had long been troubled by traveling monks (i.e. “Mendicant monks”) who begged for their food and support on school grounds. These monks erroneously reasoned that they were due financial support because Christ, himself, was a common beggar. Wycliffe felt that these men were extremely lazy and he published a treatise against them. Threatened by his formidable opposition, the monks turned against Wycliffe and remained bitter foes throughout the rest of his life. In addition, Wycliffe wrote against the excessive luxury that many English clergy sought for with all their cleverness and industry. He colorfully writes,
Let us see how such prelates are infected by the splendor of the world and by avarice. Certain ones presume to feed the reprobate from the goods of the poor, so that they become rich men in the world’s eye, actors, who proclaim publicly that those curates are generous providers…The king of pride has broken forth to such an extent in superfluous expenditures that he moves priests in five ways to have hunting dogs, fat horses, superfluous ornaments, furnished from the goods of the poor…Even though these five are damnable in a mere rector, they are even more damnable in a bishop or abbot, not only because they exceed simple rectors in these five ways, but because from greater obligation and hypocrisy they do these things more open before the world. And—to increase the gravity of the crime—they take joy in these sins, as if they were confirmed in the service of the devil…”
John Wycliffe, The Pastoral Office
It is not difficult to imagine how offended and outraged the English clergy were under the scourge of Wycliffe’s stinging rebukes! And as a result, they became his lifelong adversaries who at every turn sought to condemn him as a heretic and to scatter his followers.
The Lutterworth Parish Church–it is still standing and being used for worship on a weekly basis!
In contrast, King Edward III (1312-1377) was duly impressed with Wycliffe when he published a well-reasoned tract rejecting the obligation of the English Crown to pay yearly ecclesiastical taxes to the Pope. As a reward from the King, Wycliffe was given charge of the parish of Lutterworth which became his base of operations until his death. Also in 1374 he officially entered the service of the English Crown for a brief time as a negotiator with the papal authorities at Bruges (in modern-day Belgium). He not only successfully defended his position regarding the non-payment of ecclesiastical taxes to the Pope, but also he witnessed first-hand the affluence and corruption of the higher clergy. When he returned to England he unleashed a forceful verbal assault against the power of the Papacy, hereafter referring to the Pope as the “Antichrist.” This practice was later picked-up by many of the Protestant Reformers.
One of the controversies that got Wycliffe into the greatest amount of trouble with the ecclesiastical authorities was when he defended the right of civil authorities to seize the property of corrupt clergy. He wrote, “temporal lords can at their will take away temporal goods from the church, when those who hold to them are sinful (habitually sinful, not sinning in one act only).” Wycliffe argued that an individual person, especially the “temporal lords,” possessed authority through the “dominion of grace” from God, rather than by grace derived from the Pope or church hierarchy. Those church leaders, who disqualified themselves by immorality or theft, he reasoned, should be removed by the “temporal Lords.” This view garnered much favor for him within the English government, but produced great scorn against him within the Roman Catholic clergy.
John Wycliffe on trial at St. Paul’s Cathedral in London
In 1377 he underwent a trial at St. Paul’s Cathedral which was orchestrated by the Archbishop of Canterbury and the vengeful monks. Merle D’Aubigne writes, “But Wycliffe, who never feared the face of man, came before them with a good conscience.” As a result, he was censured by five Papal Bulls (decrees) and condemned as a heretic. It was only by the presence of John of Gaunt, the influential son of King Edward III, that the bishops and monks were prevented from physically harming him. Another trial was attempted at Lambeth Palace in 1378, but this proved to be ineffective because of the support of the Queen Mother and his great popularity amongst the common people. That same year, when Wycliffe was forty-eight years of age, he wearily retired to the relative seclusion of Oxford to study and write. But, the attacks of his opponents increased and his position as a professor at the University was jeopardized. Whereas, other church figures had attacked the corrupt practices of the Roman Catholic Church, Wycliffe attacked the doctrines which were underlying those practices. As a result, many influential friends who had supported him in the past would no longer defend him. He was now utterly alone. Merle D’Aubigne, a preeminent historian of the Reformation, reports,
Day by day the circle contracted around Wycliffe. Some of his chief supporters…departed from him. The veteran champion of the truth with had once gathered a whole nation round it, had reached the days when “strong men shall bow themselves,” and now, when harassed by persecution, he found himself alone. But boldly he uplifted his hoary head and exclaimed: “The doctrine of the gospel shall never perish; and if the earth once quaked, it was because they condemned Jesus Christ.”
Merle D’Aubigne, The Reformation in england, Vol. 1, 94
One of the main tenants of Wycliffe’s faith was that the Holy Scripture was the sole rule of faith and practice. Bible passages were to be interpreted by the careful exegesis of the text alone, rather than by appealing to the tradition of the church as the basis for interpretation. This high view of the Bible eventually led to his greatest achievement—the translation of the Bible from the Latin Vulgate into the common language of the English people. Merle D’Aubigne writes,
Let us imagine him in his quiet study: on his table is the Vulgate text, corrected after the best manuscripts; and lying open around him are the commentaries of the doctors of the church, especially those of St Jerome and Nicholas of Lyra. Between ten and fifteen years he steadily prosecuted his task…At last, some time between 1380 and 1384, it was completed. This was a great event in the religious history of England; outstripping the nations on the continent, she took her station in the foremost rank in the great work of disseminating the Scriptures.
Merle D’Aubigne, The Reformation in England, Vol. 1, 90
With the help of several associates he completed his translation of the New Testament in 1380 and the Old Testament in 1382. Nicolas of Hereford (d. c.1420) assisted him in translating the Old Testament, and John Purvey (c.1353-c.1428) helped him in revising the New Testament. James Wiley, the well-regarded Scottish historian of the Reformation, asserts the following,
The circulation of the Scriptures had arrayed the Protestant movement in the panoply of light. Wielding the sword of the Spirit, which is the Word of God, it was marching on, leaving behind it, as the monuments of its prowess, in many an English homestead, eyes once blind now opened; hearts lately depraved now purified. Majestic as the morning when, descending from the skies, she walks in steps of silent glory over the earth, so was the progress of the Book of God. There was a track of light wherever it had passed in the crowded city, in the lofty baronial hall, in the peasant’s humble cot. Though Wycliffe had lived a thousand years, and occupied himself during all of them in preaching, he could not have hoped for the good which he now saw in course of being accomplished by the silent action of the English Bible.
James Wiley, The History of Protestantism, Vol. 1, 113
Wycliffe also opposed the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation in the Lord’s Supper (Latin: trans = changed + substantia = substance of the elements)and instead favored what would become the Protestant belief that the Lord’s Supper is a “memorial feast” where Christ is “spiritually present.” He rightly asserted, “the material substance of bread and the material substance of wine remain in the Sacrament of the altar.” His followers, known as “Wycliffites” or “Lollards” later wrote,
…the pretended miracle of the sacrament of bread drives all men, but a few, to idolatry, because they think that the Body of Christ which is never away from heaven could by power of the priest’s word be enclosed essentially in a little bread which they show the people; but God grant that they might be willing to believe what the evangelical doctor (i.e. Wycliffe) says in his Triagolous, that the bread of the altar is habitually the body of Christ, for we take it that in this way any faithful man and woman can by God’s law perform the sacrament of the bread without any such miracle.
Henry Bettenson, documents of the Christian Church, 175-176
Moreover, Wycliffe rejected the “power of the priest” to forgive sins as an intermediary between God and man (i.e. the doctrine of sacerdotalism; Latin: sacer = priest + dotal = power) and he resolutely affirmed the “priesthood of all believers.” He was especially opposed to the sale of “indulgences,” which for the payment of a fee a certificate would be granted by a priest to release a person, or their relative, from punishment in purgatory. Wycliffe’s disciples wrote,
They say that they have the keys of heaven and hell, and can excommunicate and bless, bind and loose, at their will, so much so that for a drink, or twelve pence, they will sell the blessing of heaven… (Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, 177-178)
Henry Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, 177-178
Finally, he repudiated the concept of the Roman Catholic Mass by arguing, “it is not laid down in the Gospel that Christ ordained the Mass.” Due to his rejection of the Mass, there was one last attempt by the opponents of Wycliffe to undo him in 1379. He was called to defend himself in London at a council which was interrupted by a strong earthquake. Wycliffe was convinced that the earthquake was a divine sign of God’s approval of his reforms; however the council sharply disagreed and suggested that the land was simply “breaking wind” because of Wycliffe’s foul heresies and they condemned him anyway. Due to declining health he retired to Lutterworth in 1380 where he lived for the remainder of his life. His adversaries, however, did not forget him, and during the Peasant’s Revolt of 1381 he was blamed for inciting an open rebellion against the English Crown. This was not the case, and it eventually became clear that Wycliffe was falsely accused by his enemies.
Wycliffe sends out the Lollards
His influence grew during his confinement by the work of his disciples (i.e. the “Wycliffites”). Over time they were disdainfully called “Lollards” (Dutch: lollen = singers, chanters, or as “mumblers” or “mutterers”). The Lollards were fiercely persecuted by the Roman Catholic Church and the English political authorities. They engaged in spreading Wycliffe’s beliefs and copies of his Bible throughout England. In many respects the Lollards were evangelical missionaries and also political revolutionaries. They not only challenged entrenched church dogma, but also the established ecclesiastical structures of the day—specifically, the temporal authority of popes, cardinals, bishops, curates, abbots, and monks. While they were originally Oxford educated students, the Lollards eventually filled their ranks with many poor commoners. Wycliffe himself called them the “Poor Priests.” The Lollards traveled the roads of England dressed in long reddish gowns made of rough cloth. Some critics complained that the Lollards were so numerous that if you met two people while traveling on the road one was sure to be a Lollard. Their beliefs were codified in 1395 when they presented to the English Parliament, The Twelve Conclusions. The official response of the English Parliament was a written tract entitled On the Burning of a Heretic (1401), which led to much persecution of the Lollards. They were also condemned at the Council of Constance in 1415, along with the Bohemian preacher and martyr John Hus (1374-1415). Their main purpose, however, was not deterred by the persecution and death of their members. They prayerfully wrote, “We ask God then of His supreme goodness to reform our Church, as being entirely out of joint, to the perfectness of its first beginning.” The reforming of God’s church had begun in earnest and nothing that the leaders of the established church could do would prevent its spread.
Wycliffe at work
Wycliffe experienced a stroke in 1382 which limited his study and writing. Even in his sickness he was harassed and tormented. While on his bed during a difficult illness a group of local priests came to him demanding that he recant from his heretical practices and writings. He steadfastly refused saying, “I shall not die, but live to declare the evil deeds of the friars.” In God’s gracious providence, he was raised-up to better health and lived for another two years. He was often in a weakened condition, yet was used by God in a mighty way to influence other Reformers who would come after him. His ideas were especially welcomed in Bohemia where they were embraced by John Hus. Even after his death Wycliffe was so hated by the English clergy that in 1428 (44 years following his death) his bones were exhumed from the grave and publicly burnt. One biographer wrote,
They burnt his bones to ashes and cast them into the Swift, a neighboring brook running hard by. Thus the brook conveyed his ashes into the Severn, the Severn into the narrow seas and they into the main ocean. And so the ashes of Wycliffe are symbolic of his doctrine, which is now spread throughout the whole world.
John woodbridge, Great Leaders of the Christian Church, 177
The commemorative stained-glass window at Wycliffe College in Toronto, Canada
Wycliffe was clearly a forerunner of the Protestant Reformation which would burst forth 133 years after his death. For this reason he is oftentimes referred to as the “Morning Star” of the Protestant Reformation. Although he lost his professorship at Oxford University and most of his friends left him, his influence spread through his writings and fueled a great spiritual awakening throughout England and Continental Europe. Merle D’Aubigne summarizes his life and ministry with these two glowing tributes,
Wycliffe is the greatest of English reformers: he was in truth the first reformer of Christendom, and to him, under God, Britain is indebted for the honor of being the foremost in the attack upon the theocratic system of Gregory…If Luther and Calvin are the fathers of the Reformation, Wycliffe is its grandfather.
merle D’Aubigne, The Reformation in England, Vol. 1, 98
In many respects Wycliffe is the Luther of England; but the times of revival had not yet come, and the English reformer could not gain such striking victories over Rome as the German reformer. While Luther was surrounded by an ever-increasing number of scholars and princes, who confessed the same faith as himself, Wycliffe shone almost alone in the firmament of the church. The boldness with which he substituted a living spirituality for a superstitious formalism, caused those to shrink back in affright who had gone with him against the friars, priests, and popes. Erelong the Roman pontiff ordered him to be thrown into prison, and the monks threatened his life; but God protected him, and he remained calm amidst the machinations of his adversaries. ‘Antichrist,’ said he, ‘can only kill the body.’
Merle D’Aubigne, The Reformation in England, Vol. 1, 98-100
Sadly, John Wycliffe is still labeled a “heretic” by official Roman Catholic Church literature (see the following two articles in the authoritative volume, The Catholic Encyclopedia for verification of that particular charge—“Heresies” and “Lollards”). However, almost all modern-day Christians (e.g. Anglicans, Baptists, Evangelicals of various types, Lutherans, Methodists, Presbyterians, and Reformed) identify him as an inspirational hero of the faith! It is in this spirit that the Wycliffe Bible Translators, founded in 1934, have honored him as their namesake. They hope that the same zeal that motivated Wycliffe, will also motivate their own translators scattered throughout the globe. It is to John Wycliffe that all English-speaking peoples owe a debt of gratitude. He shook off the blinders of Roman Catholicism and guided this countrymen back to the Word of God, which King David calls “a lamp to my feet and a light to my path” (Psalm 119:105). For this noble task, we highly esteem John Wycliffe!
Wycliffe’s Bible (1382)
Resources for Further Study:
Bettenson, Henry. Documents of the Christian Church. Second Edition. London, England: Oxford University Press, 1963.
Broderick, Robert C. ed. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Revised Edition. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1987.
D’Aubigne, Merle J. H. The Reformation in England. Two volumes. Edited by S. M. Houghton. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1962.
Douglas, J. D. ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Avignon,” by James Taylor
“Bible, English Versions,” by Frederick F. Bruce
“England, Church of,” by John A Simpson
“Great Schism, The,” by C. T. McIntire
“Gregory XI,” by C. G. Thorne, Jr.
“Hus, Jan,” by Matthew Spinka
“Lollards,” Robert G. Clouse
“Mendicant Orders,” by T. L. Underwood
“Nicholas of Hereford,” by Ian Sellers
“Purvey, John,” by J. G. G. Norman
“Reformation, The” by Robert D. Linder
“Sawtrey, William,” by C. G. Thorne, Jr.
“Transubstantiation,” by Robert B. Ives
“Vulgate, The,” by J. N. Birdsall
“Wycliffe, John,” by Robert G. Clouse
“Wycliffe Bible Translators,” by Harold R. Cook
Douglas, J. D. ed. Who’s Who In Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers 1992.
Dowley, Tim ed., The History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford, England: Lion Publishers, 1990.
Elwell, Walter A. ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001.
“Bohemian Brethren,” by J. D. Douglas
“Hus, Jan,” by A. Paul Kubricht
“Lollards,” by Robert A. Peterson
“Reformation, Protestant,” by David F. Wright
“Wycliffe, John,” by Robert G. Clouse
Fox, John. Fox’s Book of Martyrs. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1967.
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity. Volume One. Revised Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, 1975.
Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Wycliffe, John. “The Pastoral Office” in Advocates of Reform: From Wyclif to Erasmus. Edited by Matthew Spinka. Translated by Ford Lewis Battles. Library of Christian Classics, no. 16. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1953.
Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright August, 2017 – All Rights Reserved
William Tyndale – Language Scholar and Bible Translator
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
The full book shelves that most Christians have today contain several copies of the Bible. Bible programs online and dramatic readings of Scripture on CD’s abound with all the latest features. But, this has not always been the case. At the beginning of the Reformation, during the early 1500’s, the Bible was only in the possession of a few wealthy individuals and educated church leaders. Those who did not know how to read or who were unable to translate the text of the Latin Vulgate produced by Jerome in the fourth century, hired private scholars to read and interpret the Bible for them. If it were not for the diligent and pioneering efforts of the pre-Reformer John Wycliffe (c.1330-1384), the German Reformer Martin Luther (1483-1546), and finally the Reformation scholar William Tyndale (1494-1536), the English Bible would have been much later in coming about. As it was, Tyndale’s version of the New Testament was first printed in 1526. Because of this he is recognized as the “Father of the English Bible” and it is his work which is the basis for all modern English translations—even up to this century. Below is a quotation of Romans 12:1-2 from Tyndale’s text (with the original words and spelling retained).
I beseeche you therefore brethren by the mercifulness of God, that ye make youre bodyes a quicke sacrifise, holy and acceptable unto God which is youre reasonable servynge off God. And fassion note youre selves lyke unto this worlde. But be ye changed (in youre shape) by the renuynge of youre witts that ye may fele what thynge that good, that acceptable and perfaicte will of God is.
Tyndales’s New Testament – Romans 12:1-2
William Tyndale
William Tyndale was born in the year 1494 near the Welsh border in western England. Little is known of his early life, however he had an innate gift for languages and it is said that over the course of his life he became fluent in seven different languages—Greek, Hebrew, Latin, German, Dutch, French, and Spanish. He attended Magdalen Hall at Oxford University where he received a Bachelor of Arts in 1512 and a Master of Arts in 1515. While interacting with his fellow students, he became disturbed by their complete lack of biblical knowledge. Driven by his love for theology he studied through the major themes of the Bible and entered into discussions with other students about the meaning of various texts. He reflected at this time,
In the universities they have ordained that no man shall look on Scripture until he be noselled in heathen learning eight or nine years, and armed with false principles he is clean shut out of the understanding of Scripture.
William Tyndale
All around Oxford Tyndale became known as a man with a vociferous passion for proclaiming the Bible. This ability was not well received by leaders within the English Church who became jealous of Tyndale’s gifts. Eventually, he fled the controversy and sought a quiet corner at Cambridge University in order to continue his studies. During this time of intense contemplation Tyndale became well acquainted with the writings of Martin Luther. He deeply appreciated Luther’s doctrine of “justification by faith” and recognized it for what it was—biblical truth. He also spent many hours mastering the Greek (1516) edition of the New Testament produced by the Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus (c.1466-1536). After completing his studies at Cambridge, Tyndale took a position as a private tutor to the children of an English knight—Sir John Walsh of Glouchestershire.
Little Sodbury Manor in Glouchestershire, England
At Master Walsh’s table at Little Sodbury Manor Tyndale had many opportunities to enter into scholarly debate with visiting clergy and scholars. It was Tyndale’s practice to quote the Bible as his only source of authority and to exhort those who were in ignorance or who had gone astray from biblical truth. It is reported that Tyndale once responded to an argumentative clergyman who questioned the reasonableness of giving the Scriptures to the common people with these words, “If God spare my life, ere many years, I will cause a boy that driveth the plough to know more of the Scripture than thou dost.” With such fiery words it is not surprising that the leaders of the English Church sought to have him tried as a heretic.
Eventually it became Tyndale’s goal to get the Bible into the hands of the common man. He realized that if the people had the Bible in their own language, that many of the false doctrines of Roman Catholicism would be repudiated. He became convinced that, “It was impossible to establish the lay people in any truth, except the Scripture were plainly laid before their eyes in their mother tongue.” He also reasoned that translating the Bible into English would become a great motivation for the average person to learn to read and write, thereby improving the literacy rate in England. His arguments, however, for an English translation fell on deaf ears. He received no encouragement from the Bishop of London, Cuthbert Tunstall, or any other ecclesiastical officials. He lamented, “…not only was there no room in my Lord of London’s palace to translate the New Testament, but there was also no place to do it in all England”. Discouraged, yet still determined to complete his project, Tyndale left for continental Europe never to return to the land that he loved.
Tyndale’s New Testament (1526)
With the financial backing of several sympathetic English merchants in Antwerp, Tyndale finished the first edition of his New Testament in 1525. He found a willing printer in Cologne, but before it could be printed the local police made a raid and prevented the work from being completed. Eventually, Tyndale was able to find another printer and had his version published at Worms (1526). With the help of an enterprising merchant Tyndale sold most of the first edition at a very high price to the Bishop of London. However, the Bishop did not purchase the New Testament for public distribution, but for public burning. Providentially, an entire second edition was financed by the Bishop’s purchase so that Tyndale was able to flood England with even more copies of the second edition than the first.
Tyndale also became desirous of producing a copy of the Old Testament Scriptures in English. When he had finished translating the Pentateuch he sought to have it printed and traveled from Antwerp, where he was living, to Hamburg. While journeying on board ship, a great storm came up and sank the ship. All of his books, manuscripts, money, notes, and time were lost and the project had to begin completely over again! Such was the character of William Tyndale—he was a man of great perseverance.
While living in exile throughout Holland and Germany, he fled many times from one town to another seeking a printer who would be supportive of his cause. Oftentimes he had “secret agents” from the English clergy pursuing him and endeavoring to arrest him. In many respects he was “God’s Outlaw” as one recent biographer has called him. Because it was illegal to produce a copy of the Bible without the formal backing of the King, his text (six editions in all) had to be surreptitiously smuggled into England hidden in bales of merchandise and sold on the “black market”. Eventually, he was betrayed by a “false friend” and fellow Englishman, Henry Philips, and arrested. His imprisonment at Vilvorde (9 miles north of Brussels) lasted for seventeen months from which survives the following letter giving a brief view of the suffering that he underwent for the sake of the gospel. He plaintively writes,
I entreat your lordship, and that by the Lord Jesus, that if I am to remain here during the winter, you will request the Procureur to be kind enough to send me from my goods which he has in his possession, a warmer cap, for I suffer extremely from cold in the head, being afflicted with a perpetual catarrah, which is considerably increased in this cell. A warmer coat also, for that which I have is very thin: also a piece of cloth to patch my leggings. My over-coat is worn out, as also are my shirts. He has a woollen shirt of mine, if he will be kind enough to send it. I have also with him leggings of thicker cloth for putting on above; he also has warmer caps for wearing at night. I wish also his permission to have a lamp in the evening, for it is wearisome to sit alone in the dark. But above all, I entreat and beseech your clemency to be urgent with the Procureur that he may kindly permit me to have my Hebrew Bible, Hebrew Grammar, and Hebrew Dictionary, that I may spend my time with that study. And in return, may you obtain your dearest wish, provided always that it be consistent with the salvation of your soul. But if, before the end of winter, a different decision be reached concerning me, I shall be patient, abiding the will of God to the glory of the grace of my Lord Jesus Christ, whose Spirit, I pray, may ever direct your heart. Amen. W. Tyndale
William Tyndale
William Tyndale’s Execution in Holland
Miles Coverdale
Before he was strangled and his body burned at the stake (October 6, 1536) he boldly proclaimed these prophetic words, “Lord, open the King of England’s eyes!” Unknown to Tyndale, his plea was in the process of being answered. While he was languishing in prison his associate, Miles Coverdale (1488-1569), was able to produce an English version of the Bible printed with King Henry VIII’s endorsement. Coverdale utilized Tyndale’s translation of the Pentateuch and New Testament as a foundation for his own translation. Again in 1537, with the help of Archbishop Thomas Cramner, King Henry VIII ordered that every parish should have its own copy of the Bible available for the clergy as well as the people to use. This version was called The Great Bible. Finally, in 1611 King James of England also fulfilled the desire and longing of Tyndale in an even greater way by publishing the popular and prolific King James Version of the Bible. As you enjoy reading daily from the many Bibles in your possession, give thanks to God for the faithful life and work of William Tyndale.
Resources for Further Study:
Christy-Murray, David. A History of Heresy. London, Great Britain: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Daniell, David. William Tyndale: A Biography. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994.
Douglas, J.D. ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Bible (English Versions)”, by F. F. Bruce
“Coverdale, Miles”, by Harold H. Rowden
“Cramner, Thomas”, by Noel S. Pollard
“Erasmus”, by Robert G. Clouse
“Henry VIII”, by Robert Schnucker
“Reformation, The”, by Robert D. Linder
“Tunstall, Cuthbert”, by Joyce Horn
“Tyndale, William”, by G. E. Duffield
“Vulgate, The”, by J. N. Birdsall
“Wycliffe, John”, Robert G. Clouse
Douglas, J.D. ed. Who’s Who In Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.
Dowley, Tim ed., The History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford, Great Britain: Lion Publishers, 1990.
Edwards, Brian H. God’s Outlaw: The Story of William Tyndale and the English Bible. London, Great Britain: Evangelical Press, 1976.
Fox, John. Fox’s Book of Martyrs. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1967.
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity (Vol. 2). Revised Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, 1975.
Lawson, Steven J. The Daring Mission of William Tyndale. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2015.
Loane, Sir Marcus. Masters of the English Reformation. The Church Society, 1954. Reprint. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2005.
O’Dell, Scott. The Hawk that Dare Not Hunt by Day. Greenville, SC: Bob Jones University Press, 1975.
Tyndale, William. Tyndale’s New Testament. Edited by David Daniell. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989.
Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
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