Sometimes religious debates can get out-of-control! Yet, we see Tertullian (sitting to the right) calmly making his case against the accusers of Christianity.
“See to it that no one takes you captive by philosophy and empty deceit, according to human tradition…and not according to Christ.” Col. 2:8
One of the stellar personalities of the Early Church, in my opinion, was Tertullian (AD c.160-c.215/220). As a young man growing up in Carthage, he received a superior education in rhetoric, literature, philosophy, Latin, and Greek. Once he became a Christian in his late thirties he put all of that knowledge to use in defending the faith. Over the years he wrote many treatises on a multitude of subjects–polemical, theological, and practical. But, at the center of his vast literary output was his zeal at rigorously challenging the opponents of Christianity. Here is an example of his skillful defense,
“He [Paul] has been at Athens and had in his interviews with its philosophers become acquainted with the human wisdom which pretends to know the truth. In fact it only corrupts it and is itself divided into its own multiple heresies by the variety of its mutually hostile sects. What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem? What concord is there between the Academy and the Church? What have heretics to do with Christians? Our instruction comes from the porch of Solomon, who himself taught that the Lord should be sought in simplicity of heart. Away with all attempts to produce a Stoic, Platonic and dialectic Christianity. We want no curious disputation after possessing Christ Jesus, no speculation after enjoying the gospel. With our faith we desire no further belief. For this is our prime belief: that there is nothing more that we should believe besides.”
— Tertullian, On the Prescription of Heretics, 7; quoted in Lane, A Concise History of Christian Thought, 16-17.
Consider Tertullian’s penetrating question–“What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” This is a core concept that all Christians must recognize. We should certainly be familiar with pagan ideas, but we should never embrace them alongside of our Christian convictions. Any attempt at religious syncretism leads to despair and destruction. Jesus said it best, “No one can serve two masters, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or he will be devoted to the one and despise the other” (Matt. 6:24). Therefore, you are either for Christ or against Him. Give this line of reasoning some careful thought and see if you agree with logic of Tertullian.
As one of the “heirs” of the Protestant Reformation who happily embraces the theology of Wycliffe, Huss, Luther, Zwingli, Tyndale, Calvin, and Knox, I could never imagine myself mixing the thoughts of Zeno, Plato, and Aristotle with my faith in Jesus Christ! Such a strange concoction would surely be an offense to God and harmful to me. Let me exhort you, then, to resolve never to incorporate philosophical speculation with your belief in Jesus Christ. After all, “What indeed does Athens have to do with Jerusalem?”
— Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Greg Bahnsen first introduced me to Tertullian along with Tim Dowley’s History of Christianity. Frame gives a helpful summary of Tertullian’s life and theology.
Resources for further Study:
Bahnsen, Greg L. Always Ready: Directions for Defending the Christian Faith. Robert R. Booth, ed. Atlanta, GA: American Vision and Texarkana, AR: Covenant Media Foundation, 1996.
Dowley, Tim, ed. The History of Christianity: A Lion Handbook. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishing, 1990.
Frame, John M. A History of Western Philosophy and Theology. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2015.
Greenslade, Stanley L., ed. Early Latin Theology: Selections From Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose and Jerome. Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1956.
Lane, Anthony. A Concise History of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.
“Indeed, all who desire to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will be persecuted.” 2 Tim. 3:12
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Ignatius (AD c.35-c.117) served the Lord as the bishop of Antioch in Syria. Not much is known of his early life. There is an ancient but unprovable tradition, however, that Ignatius was the child whom Jesus took up into his arms and said, “Truly, I say to you, unless you turn and become like children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven. Whoever humbles himself like this child is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven” (cf. Matt. 18:3-4). As a young Christian, Ignatius was discipled by the Apostle John through extensive correspondence. Because of this he quickly matured in his understanding of Christianity and became a highly capable church leader.
The church at Antioch of Syria became known as the first place where the disciples of Jesus were identified as “Christians” (Acts 11:26). It was also a significant launching place for Christian missionary endeavors. Paul and Barnabas were sent out by the church of Antioch on multiple missionary trips (Acts 13:1-3). When large numbers of Gentiles were converted, the church in Antioch welcomed them (Acts 15:30-32). Ignatius served as its bishop (Gk. episkopos), alongside of a council of elders (Gk. presbyterion), and the deacons (Gk. diakonia). As the bishop his spiritual influence appears to have far exceeded Antioch, so much so that he was recognized as a spiritual leader throughout the region of Syria and Asia Minor.
The ruins of the Antiochus Gate in Antioch of Syria. Perhaps, Paul and Barnabas walked through this gate at the beginning of their missionary journeys!
Ignatius is best known for seven letters that he wrote during the last year of his life. These letters are preserved in the writings of the “Apostolic Fathers” and they document his pending martyrdom as he was taken to Rome as a captive. In them Ignatius distinguished himself by writing against the Docetists who asserted that Jesus only appeared to have a real birth, death, and bodily resurrection. In essence, they denied the incarnation of Jesus Christ. Ignatius strongly argued that the Docetists (Gk: dokeo = to seem, to appear) were in error about Jesus Christ. He thoughtfully wrote,
Be deaf, therefore, whenever anyone speaks to you apart from Jesus Christ, who was of the family of David, who was the son of Mary; who really was born, who both ate and drank; who really was persecuted under Pontius Pilate, who really was crucified and died while those in heaven and on earth and under the earth looked on; who, moreover, really was raised from the dead when his Father raised him up. In the same way his Father will likewise also raise up in Christ Jesus us who believe in him. Apart from him we have no true life.
— “Ignatius to the Trallians” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 9
Hence, even at this early stage in the history of the Christian church, we see a fully formed doctrine of the humanity of Jesus Christ. Jesus did not just to appear to be a man, but he actually was a man. Over time, this contentious debate was finally resolved at the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) where Jesus Christ was acknowledged to be fully man and fully God at the same time, with the two natures united in one person (i.e. the hypostatic union).
As a determined apologist of Christian orthodoxy Ignatius demonstrated his zeal for defending the truth against all heretical teaching (Gk. hairesis = a choice, destructive opinion, sect or schismatic faction). Therefore, he also argued against the Ebionites who demanded the keeping of Jewish regulations as a way of salvation. Ignatius emphatically noted, “It is utterly absurd to profess Jesus Christ and to practice Judaism. For Christianity did not believe in Judaism, but Judaism in Christianity, in which every tongue believed and was brought together to God” (Ignatius to the Magnesians, Art. 10). In this, Ignatius mirrors the teaching of the Apostle Paul who wrote to the Colossian church, “Therefore let no one pass judgment on you in questions of food and drink, or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath. These are a shadow of the things to come, but the substance belongs to Christ” (Col. 2:16-17). Clearly, the Apostles’ doctrine was that the work of Jesus Christ on the cross was completely sufficient to justify and cleanse the sinner; nothing else was needed. Ignatius held to this same belief.
He also claimed to possess special gifts from the Holy Spirit by writing that he was “not lacking in any spiritual gift” (Ignatius to the Smynaeans, in the Salutation). Presumably, then, he prophesied, spoke in and interpreted “tongues” (Gk. glossolalia), and performed healings. As a result, some modern-day Pentecostals have claimed Ignatius as an early advocate of the “Spirit-filled” life. It is dubious, however, to make this claim when it is based only on one slender text (cited above). It is more likely that he manifested various spiritual gifts (i.e. the sign gifts), but that these ceased to exist as the Apostolic Age came to an end. See the Apostle Paul’s statement for context, “As for prophecies, they will pass away; as for tongues they will cease; as for knowledge, it will pass away. For we know in part and we prophesy in part, but when the perfect comes [i.e. the New Testament Scriptures], the partial will pass away” (1 Cor. 13:8-10).
In his seven letters Ignatius quoted from three Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) and several of the New Testament Epistles (like the example above from Romans). This fact shows how the NT Canon was already widely recognized at the end of the Apostolic Age.
Ignatius is best known by Christians throughout the centuries as a martyr (Gk. marturion = a witness, testimony, evidence). On his way to Rome to suffer martyrdom under armed guard he wrote letters to the Christians in the cities through which he passed (Philadelphia and Smyrna), to cities that sent out delegations to meet him (Ephesus, Tralles, and Magnesia), to Rome (sent ahead of his arrival), and finally to Polycarp (the bishop of Smyrna). These seven letters contain a strong and passionate declaration of the gospel of Jesus Christ; urging his fellow Christians to “stand firm” and to seek lives of holiness. Note this entry To the Ephesians on the subject of humility. He writes,
I am not commanding you, as though I were someone important. For even though I am in chains for the sake of the Name, I have not yet been perfected in Jesus Christ. For now I am only beginning to be a disciple, and I speak to you as my fellow students. For I need to be trained by you in faith, instruction, endurance, and patience. But since love does not allow me to be silent concerning you, I have therefore taken the initiative to encourage you, so that you may run together in harmony with the mind of God. For Jesus Christ, our inseparable life, is the mind of the Father, just as the bishops appointed throughout the world are in the mind of Christ.
— “Ignatius to the Ephesians” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 3
These letters show that the episcopal form of church government was beginning to take a strong hold in Syria and Asia Minor as the preferred structure of ecclesiastical authority. It is telling that each one of the major churches that Ignatius sent letters to were ruled over by a bishop (Gk: episkopos). Concerning the structure of church government—bishops, presbyters, and deacons—Ignatius exhorts,
Flee from division as the beginning of evils. You must all follow the bishop as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and follow the council of presbyters as you would the apostles; respect the deacons as the commandment of God. Let no one do anything that has to do with the church without the bishop. Only that Eucharist which is under the authority of the bishop (or whomever he himself designates) is to be considered valid. Wherever the bishop appears, there let the congregation be; just as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the catholic church. It is not permissible either to baptize or to hold a love feast without the bishop. But whatever he approves is also pleasing to God, in order that everything you do may be trustworthy and valid.
— “Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 8
In addition, it was Ignatius who first used the word “catholic” (i.e., “universal”) to describe the interrelationship between the churches scattered throughout the Roman world (See: Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Art. 8). In this sense, Ignatius emphasized the fact that the churches were not completely independent from one another, but they were inter-connected. The best evidence for this connection between them was the way in which all of the churches adhered to the ruling of the Jerusalem Council regarding the inclusion of Gentiles into the church (Acts 15:1-21).
Moreover, Ignatius seems convinced that the return of Jesus Christ was imminent. Given the rising persecution against the disciples of Jesus Christ, he can certainly not be faulted for this expectation and hope. He boldly writes,
These are the last times. Therefore let us be reverent, let us fear the patience of God, lest it become a judgment against us. For let us either fear the wrath to come or love the grace which is present, one of the two; only let us be found in Christ Jesus, which leads to true life. Let nothing appeal to you apart from him, in whom I carry around these chains (my spiritual pearls!), by which I hope, through your prayers, to rise again. May I always share in them, in order that I might be found in the company of the Christians of Ephesus who have always been in agreement with the apostles, by the power of Jesus Christ.
— “Ignatius to the Ephesians” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 11
Even though Jesus Christ did not return within the life of Ignatius, his strong faith and resilient attitude prevailed in the end. Ignatius expected to be in the presence of his Lord, Jesus Christ, immediately following his death. This was not a vain hope, but one built upon the promise of Jesus—“Let not your hearts be troubled. Believe in God, believe also in me. In my Father’s house are many rooms…I will come again and will take you to myself, that where I am you may be also” (John 14:1-3).
When the Roman Emperor Trajan, who ruled from AD 98-117, visited Antioch he desired to see its most famous citizen, Ignatius. This was not a friendly visit and the Emperor Trajan greeted him in the following manner:
Roman Emperor Trajan
Trajan: “There you are, wicked devil, deceiver of men!”
Ignatius: “‘Not an evil spirit,’ but I have Jesus in my heart.”
Trajan: “Jesus Christ within you? Do you mean him who was crucified by Pontius Pilate?”
Ignatius: “Yes, he was crucified for my sins.”
Without a trial of any kind the heartless Emperor Trajan ordered that Ignatius be taken to Rome and be thrown to the wild beasts. He was to be, “butchered to make a Roman holiday.” It was on his way to Rome that Ignatius penned his famous letters to individual churches and to Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna. Knowing that he would soon be martyred, Ignatius wrote the following words,
I am writing to all the churches and am insisting to everyone that I die for God of my own free will—unless you hinder me. I implore you: do not be unseasonably kind to me. Let me be food for the wild beasts, through whom I can reach God. I am God’s wheat, and I am being ground by the teeth of wild beasts, so that I may prove to be pure bread. Better yet, coax the wild beasts, so that they may become my tomb and leave nothing of my body behind, lest I become a burden to anyone once I have fallen asleep. Then I will truly be a disciple of Jesus Christ, when the world will no longer see my body. Pray to the Lord on my behalf, so that through these instruments I may prove to be a sacrifice to God. I do not give you orders like Peter and Paul: they were apostles, I am a convict; they were free, but I am even now still a slave. But if I suffer, I will be a freedman of Jesus Christ and will rise up free in him. In the meantime, as a prisoner I am learning to desire nothing.
— “Ignatius to the Romans” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 4
A visitor to the Colosseum once asked, “Are there any relics still to be obtained?” The guide replied, “Gather the dust from the floor of the Colosseum; it is all the martyrs.”
Many weeks later when Ignatius finally arrived in Rome, the Emperor Trajan sentenced him to death. Ignatius replied by looking up to heaven and uttering these words, “I thank thee, O Lord, that thou hast vouchsafed thus to honor me” and later while facing the lions he stated, “I am God’s grain, to be ground between the teeth of wild beasts, so that I may become a holy loaf for the Lord.” Soon after this all that was left of Ignatius was a few gnawed bones. When his friends recovered his remains they knew that Ignatius was “with Christ, which is far better” (Phil. 1:23). One hundred and twenty years later, Tertullian (AD c.160-220), the Latin Church Father, rightly affirmed, “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.” The testimony of Ignatius, and many other martyrs of the Early Church, serve as sober reminders to modern-day Christians that the secular authorities can turn against the members of Christ’s Church. The Apostle Paul emphatically noted, “Indeed, all who desire to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will be persecuted” (2 Tim. 3:12). Let us, then, be watchful, and let us prepare ourselves for what trials and tribulations may come in the providential will of God.
These three books first introduced me to the treasures of Ignatius–all are winners!
Sources for Further Study:
Abott-Smith, G. A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament. Third Edition. Edinburgh, Scotland, T. & T. Clark, 1981.
Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.
Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Antioch (Syrian)” by James M. Houston
“Apostolic Fathers” by David F. Wright
“Apostolic Succession” by R. E. Nixon
“Bishop” by Peter Toon
“Chalcedon, Definition of” by G. T. D. Angel
“Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
“Deacon” by J. W. Charley
“Docetism” by G. W. Grogan
“Ebonites” by H. L. Ellison
“Eusebius of Caesarea” by J. G. G. Norman
“Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
“Ignatius” by David F. Wright
“Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
“Persecution” by David F. Wells
“Polycarp” by David F. Wright
“Presbyter” by W. Stanford Reid
“Rome” by Clyde Curry Smith
“Tertullian” by David F. Wright
Dowley, Tim, ed. The Lion Handbook of the History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishing, 1990.
Eusebius Pamphilus. The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus. Grand Rapids, MI: Reprint, Baker Book House, 1992.
Holmes, Michael W., ed. and trans. The Apostolic Fathers in English. Third Edition; after the earlier version of J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Leith, John H., ed. Creeds of the Churches. Third Edition. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1982.
Richardson, Cyril C. Early Christian Fathers. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1970.
Schaaf, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Volume 2. Fifth Edition. Originally published in 1858. Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendricksen Publishers, 1996.
Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
“Ignatius of Antioch” by Edwin M. Yamauchi
“John and the End of the Apostolic Age” by Leon Morris
“Paul and the Missionary Enterprise” by F. F. Bruce
Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Bloomington, IN: Warhorn Media, Reprint, 2014.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2024 – All Rights Reserved
The Stoning of Stephen, as Saul looks on in approval
On September 19, 2024 we begin the Fall Semester of Redeemer Theological Academy. Our class will be a study of the “History of the Early Church” (Apostolic Age through AD 451). Below are all the details:
Class Description:
This weekly in-person class will meet on Thursday mornings in Calvin Hall, Room 206 (9:30-11:30 AM) at Redeemer Presbyterian Church. Each week Pastor Serven will give lectures on the key people, events, and issues of this important period in the development and growth of the New Testament Church. In particular, we will focus on the lives of the Christian martyrs, the major doctrinal controversies, and the way in which the Lord protected and preserved his Church through many crushing difficulties. In addition to lectures from Pastor Serven we will read and discuss portions of The Apostolic Fathers (which include The Didache & writings by Clement, Ignatius, and Polycarp). Near the end of the semester we will read The Confessions by Saint Augustine.
Required Textbooks:
— The Apostolic Fathers in English. Michael W. Holmes, ed. Third Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.
— Augustine, Aurelius. Confessions. Sarah Ruden, trans. New York, NY: The Modern Library, 2018.
Schedule:
Class begins on Thursday, September 19, 2024 (9:30-11:30 AM). A list of reading assignments will be given out on the first day of class.
Class Instructor:
Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven is a longtime teacher of the Bible, Reformed theology, and the history of Christ’s Church. After a lengthy pastoral career of serving Presbyterian churches in both California and Missouri (1980-2016), Marcus and his family relocated to Austin, Texas in order to retire—but God had other plans! He now serves as the Pastor of Christian Discipleship here at Redeemer Presbyterian Church and is a member of the Presbytery of South Texas (PCA). Marcus has earned degrees from the University of California at Davis (BA), Fuller Theological Seminary (MDiv), and Covenant Theological Seminary (ThM and DMin). He is an active member of the Evangelical Theological Society.
Saul the Pharisee stands by while Stephen is stoned to death
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
The Early Church was forged in the midst of much persecution and suffering. Jesus told his disciples that “Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness sake, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.” (Matt. 5:10) And indeed, that is exactly what happened. Wave after wave of persecution flooded the church. But, these early Christians persevered and grew ever stronger in their faith. In the first decade following the resurrection of Jesus, the disciples Stephen, James, Timon, and Parmenas all suffered martyrdom at the hands of the Jews and the Romans. The followers of Jesus fled from Jerusalem when the Apostles were arrested, tried, and jailed. In God’s providence, however, the church spread as a result of this persecution. Cyprian prophetically stated, “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.” And so it was; as the martyrs died, the Church of Jesus Christ spread and multiplied all over the known world. Consider the record of the Twelve Apostles and other key figures in the Early Church. These brave men and women received a “Martyr’s crown” for their steadfast witness to the resurrection of Jesus Christ and for preaching the Gospel.
Following the Crucifixion & Resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth – AD 33…
Stephen (a church deacon, Acts 6:5) — was stoned to death in Jerusalem with Saul, the persecutor and Pharisee, standing by and approving of his martyrdom (Acts 7:54-60)
Nicanor (a church deacon, Acts 6:5) — he suffered martyrdom in AD 34.
Mary (the mother of Jesus) — after she “treasured up all these things, pondering them in her heart” regarding Jesus (Luke 2:19, 34-35, 51), she appears to have come to faith following His resurrection (Acts 1:14). She died AD c.40.
James (a disciple & brother of John) — James was put to death with a sword by the edict of Herod Agrippa I in AD 44 (Acts 12:1-3).
Timon (a church deacon, Acts 6:5) — suffered martyrdom at Philippi in AD 44.
Parmenas (a church deacon) — was martyred in the region of Macedonia in AD 44.
Philip (a disciple) — labored in Upper Asia and was scourged, imprisoned, and crucified at Hierapolis in Asia Minor in AD 54.
Matthew (a disciple) — various traditions have him laboring throughout Macedonia, Parthia, & Persia. He wrote the Gospel of Matthew and was slain with a spear or an axe in Nadabah, Ethiopia, in AD 60.
Matthias (a follower of Christ) — took Judas Iscariot’s place following his betrayal and death as one of the twelve disciples (Acts 1:15-26). After preaching and evangelizing throughout Ethiopia he was stoned in Jerusalem and then, beheaded.
James the Less (Son of Alphaeus, a disciple) — he ministered and was martyred in Syria.
The Apostle Andrew as he faced his death sentence in Edessa
Andrew (a disciple & brother of Peter) — preached in Asia Minor and Greece; crucified in Edessa on a transverse cross (commonly known as St. Andrew’s Cross).
John Mark (an evangelist) — possibly the “young man” who fled from the garden of Gethsemane (Mark 14:51-52); served with Paul and Barnabas on their 1st missionary journey, yet he disappointed Paul and went off with Barnabas (Acts 15:36-41); 2 Tim. 4:11 speaks of Paul and Mark eventually reconciling; tradition tells us that Mark was Peter’s amanuensis for the second gospel; he established churches in Alexandria; he was dragged to pieces by the people of Alexandria, Egypt, because they believed that he offended their idol, Serapis.
Apollos (traveling evangelist & preacher) — befriended by Paul and instructed by Aquila and Priscilla (Acts 18:24-28), he traveled throughout the Mediterranean region seeking to strengthen the churches. Some scholars believe he is the author of Hebrews.
Peter finding the coin in the fish’s mouth as Jesus said he would
Simon Peter (a disciple & brother of Andrew) — he labored throughout the Roman world, perhaps visiting Britain and Gaul; wrote two NT Epistles and superintended the Gospel of Mark (1 Peter 5:13); crucified in Rome upside-down, because he felt unworthy of being crucified in the same manner as the Lord, during Nero’s persecution of Christians (AD 67)
Paul (formerly Saul, the persecutor of “The Way”) — the Apostle to the Gentiles; he wrote thirteen Epistles; labored throughout the Roman world; may have visited Spain; beheaded in Rome during Nero’s persecution of Christians (AD 67)
The Apostle Paul hard at work writing his many letters
Jude, or sometimes known as Thaddaeus (the Brother of James the Less, a disciple) — was crucified at Edessa in AD 72.
Barnabas (the evangelist) — traveled throughout the Roman world and was martyred on Cyprus in AD 73.
Bartholomew (a disciple) — accompanied Philip to Hierapolis; martyred after ministry in Armenia or India.
Thomas, or Didymus (a disciple) — labored in Babylon and India; was trust through with a spear by enraged pagan priests in India.
The Apostle Thomas dies while preaching the Gospel in India
Luke (the traveling companion of Paul and a physician) — wrote the gospel of Luke and the book of Acts; hanged to death on an olive tree by idolatrous priests in Greece.
Simon The Zealot (a disciple) — tradition has him serving in Persia, Egypt, Carthage, and Britain; crucified in Britain in AD 74.
Mary Magdalene (a follower of Jesus) — Jesus delivered her of seven demons (Luke 8:1-3), out of loyalty she later stood by Him at the cross (Mark 15:40) and witnessed His resurrection (Mark 16:1-ff). She served with the Apostle John in Ephesus and died there. Her body was later moved to Constantinople. Other traditions suggest that she traveled with Martha and Lazarus to France and is buried there.
Timothy (a traveling-companion of Paul, & pastor in Ephesus) — he was badly beaten by a procession of pagans in Ephesus after he preached to them about Christ. Two days later he died from his injuries (AD 97).
John (a disciple & brother of James) — the “one whom Jesus loved”; wrote the Gospel of John, three Epistles, and the Revelation; in Ephesus John was pitched into a cauldron of boiling oil, yet escaped without serious injury; later he was exiled to the island of Patmos by the Roman Emperor, Domitian. John was the only disciple who died a natural death. He died in Ephesus approximately AD 100.
James (the brother of Jesus, Mt. 13:55) — according to Paul, the risen Christ appeared to James (1 Cor. 15:7). Also, James, and Jesus’ other brothers and mother, were gathered with the disciples in Jerusalem following the Resurrection and Ascension of Jesus (Acts 1:13-14). Following these events James came to faith in Christ and became the leader of the church in Jerusalem. Moreover, he convened the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15) and authored the Epistle of James. He was severely beaten and then stoned by the Jews in his 94th year having his brains dashed out with a club.
The Colosseum in Rome where so many Christians were martyred
Sources of Information:
Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.
Cross, F. L., gen. ed., and E. A. Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Second Edition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1974.
Douglas, J. D., gen. ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Douglas, J. D., gen. ed. Who’s Who in Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 1992.
Eusebius of Caesarea. Ecclesiastical History. Originally written in A.D. 325; Reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1992.
Foxe, John. Foxe’s Book of Martyrs. Formally known as Actes and Monumentes. William Byron Forbrush, ed. Originally published in English 1563; Reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1967.
Harrison, Everett F. The Apostolic Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1985.
Houghton, S. M. Sketches in Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Schaff, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Vol. 1. “Apostolic Christianity (A.D. 1-100).” Originally published in 1858; Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendricksen Publishers, 1996.
Tenney, Merrill C., gen. ed. The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible. 5 Volumes. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1975-1976.
Walton, Robert C. Chronological & Background Charts of Church History. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1986.
Woodbridge, John D., gen. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2023 – All Rights Reserved
The Ancient Library of Alexandria, Egypt–Athanasius studied here as a young man
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
“For in him the whole fullness of deity dwells bodily.” Colossians 2:9
“Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever.” Hebrews 13:5
Jehovah’s Witnesses at the door
Many Christians have had the awkward experience of innocently answering a knock at their front door only to find “doorstep debaters” eager to challenge their beliefs about Jesus Christ. This is not a new situation. The well-known Christian author C. S. Lewis once said, “There are no new heresies.” This simple truth can be confirmed by searching back in Church history and finding that for every modern-day heresy there is an ancient “parent” cult. The early Christians also had to defend themselves from the aggressive tactics of cult groups. Athanasius (A.D. c.296-373) was one such defender of the full deity and full humanity of Jesus Christ. In Christian history he is often referred to as one of the “Giants” of the Early Church because he stubbornly refused to allow the Church to adopt false teachings about the Lord Jesus Christ.
Born to wealthy Egyptian parents in Alexandria, he was trained in all the disciplines of classical Greek learning. Although Athanasius was physically small, he possessed a keen intellect with an aptitude for serious study and determined debate. The Christian school in Alexandria was world-renown for its wonderful library. This unique collection of aged parchments and manuscripts was considered by many to be one of the “Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.” In this scholarly environment young Athanasius quickly showed his academic and spiritual abilities. He was also fascinated by the Christian hermits who had removed themselves from the city. These men sought solitude in the Egyptian desert so that they could totally concentrate on God. His personal conversion can be traced to the winsome evangelical influence of these devoted monks. Even as a young man, Athanasius became well-known as a respected Bible teacher. Moreover, he served as a faithful deacon in the local Church, and he was a trusted theological advisor to the Alexandrian Bishop, Alexander (A.D. c.250-326).
Athanasius
In the year A.D. 325 Athanasius traveled across the Mediterranean Sea to the Council of Nicea (near Constantinople) along with Bishop Alexander. Athanasius served as the Bishop’s personal secretary and aide. This council, which was called by Emperor Constantine (A.D. c.272-337), focused on resolving two nagging conflicts that raged within the Empire: (1) the disagreement between Christians about whether those who had fearfully rejected Christ during the persecutions could be forgiven (i.e. the Melitian Schism); and (2) the heterodox preaching of false teachers who denied the full deity of Jesus Christ (i.e. the Arian Heresy). This second dispute, which was far less emotionally charged than the rift concerning unforgiven brethren, was actually much more serious because of its long-range effect on the foundational doctrines of the Church. The essential question was this: “Who is Jesus Christ?” If the Ancient Church answered that question by denying the full deity of Christ, its basic understanding of many of the precious doctrines of the Bible would be distorted; specifically, the doctrine of Creation, the Trinity, the incarnation of Christ, the redemption of sinners by Christ on the Cross, and the bodily Resurrection of Jesus Christ. The Council of Nicea, therefore, was a crucial turning-point in the history of the Church. Out of its scholarly dialogue and intense debates would emerge a champion to give future leadership and direction to orthodox Christianity. The man of the hour whom God raised up was twenty-nine year old Athanasius—short, swarthy, and scholarly.
In contrast, the opponent of Athanasius was the tall, handsome, and eloquent Arius (A.D. 256-336). He served as an Elder (or Presbyter) within a local Alexandrian congregation. He was well-known in the community as a person who loved debate, and who entered into disputes about theology. One day after hearing Bishop Alexander teach at a local Synod on the reasonableness of the Trinity, Arius contentiously put forward the argument that Jesus Christ was not divine but only God’s first created creature. By teaching this view Arius declared that Jesus was not the eternally begotten Son of God, but that he was created in time like an angel or a human being. He wrote to a sympathetic friend contrasting the teaching of Bishop Alexander with his own views concerning the person of Jesus Christ. Arius contended,
…how grievously the bishop attacks us and persecutes us, and comes full tilt against us, so that he drives us from the city as atheists because we do not concur with him when he publicly preaches, “God always, the Son always; at the same time the Father, at the same time the Son; the Son co-exists with God, un-begotten; he is ever-begotten, he is not born-by-begetting; neither by thought nor by any moment of time does God precede the Son; God always, Son always, the Son exists from God himself.” … To these impieties we cannot even listen, even though the heretics threaten us with a thousand deaths … We are persecuted because we say that the Son has a beginning, but God is without beginning. For that reason we are persecuted, and because we say that he is from what is not. And this we say because he is neither part of God nor derived from any substance. For this we are persecuted; the rest you know.
Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, “The Letter of Arius to Eusebius, Bishop of Nicomedia,” 41-42)
Thus, the Arians came to believe that Jesus Christ was “a little god” not having the same essential nature, or substance, as God the Father. In this way they denied the deity of Christ and greatly disturbed the Church. The Emperor, Constantine, was not happy with the bitter controversy that ensued and he found it necessary to call an ecumenical council of the whole Church which convened on May 20, 325 at Nicea (near Constantinople in Asia Minor).
Many leaders within the Ancient Church followed Arius because of the close connection that his teachings had with Greek philosophy and religion. Within the Greek pantheon there were many “lesser gods” who did the bidding of the “highest God.” Also, in Greek thought it was assumed that all flesh is evil and all that is spiritual is holy. Therefore, the Arians reasoned that Jesus Christ could not be fully human and fully divine at the same time. Since he was only a created being he could not possibly be called the Creator, nor could he fully satisfy God’s divine justice when he died on the Cross, neither could he experience a bodily resurrection on the third day. In order to promote his “false gospel” amongst the common people Arius rewrote many popular songs from the taverns and seaports by altering their words. He used the same tunes, but changed the lyrics. This strategy was highly successful and many orthodox Christians leaders despaired that the whole Christian world was becoming followers of Arius.
The Council of Nicea (A.D. 325)
When the Council of Nicea finally met in A.D. 325 the outcome was far from certain. Three hundred Bishops and a large number of Church representatives attended from all across the Empire. Among the delegates were followers of Bishop Alexander (Trinitarians), semi-Arians (who held to a middle view of the subordination of the Son to the Father), and a small but vocal group of Arians (with Arius also present). After Emperor Constantine began the proceedings extensive debate followed with Eusebius of Caesarea (a semi-Arian) putting forth a creedal statement as a basis for compromise. After several changes and refinements the Council overwhelmingly concluded that Jesus Christ was of the “same nature” as God the Father (homoousias), rather than being of a “like nature” to God the Father (homoiousias). The Nicene Creed that was forged out of this rigorous debate affirmed that Jesus Christ, the eternal Son of God, was coequal, consubstantial, and coeternal with the Father. Although Arianism was officially rebuked at the Council of Nicea, and Arius was exiled, this smooth-talking heretic continued to find willing adherents within the Church for many years to come.
A short time after Athanasius returned from Nicea he was thrust into leadership as the new Bishop of Alexandria. His long-time mentor and close friend, Bishop Alexander, died an untimely death in A.D. 326 and the thirty year old Athanasius became his successor. When no one else was willing to defend the deity of Christ, Athanasius resolutely held fast to the Nicene formulation. His friends referred to his dogged defense by coining the phrase, Athanasius: Contra Mundum (or, “Athanasius: Against the World”). He was severely put to the test in the 330’s when Arius treacherously signed the Nicene Creed, after making a few private additions to it (e.g. he changed homoousias to homoiousias). As a result, Emperor Constantine ordered Athanasius to readmit Arius to the Lord’s Table. But, Athanasius stubbornly refused! For this he was condemned at the Synod of Tyre (A.D. 335) and exiled to the desert. For the next thirty years Athanasius was restored and exiled four different times! It was during one of these forced exiles in the wilderness that Athanasius befriended the reclusive monk, Anthony (A.D. 251-356). He became widely known for writing the compelling biography, The Life of Saint Anthony, which details the victories and challenges of the spiritual life of the reclusive desert hermit.
Finally, Athanasius brought some level of resolution to the controversy focused on the deity of Christ with his brilliant treatise The Incarnation of the Word. He wrote,
We were the cause of his becoming flesh. For our salvation he loved us so much as to appear and be born in a human body … No one else but the Savior himself, who in the beginning made everything out of nothing, could bring the corrupted to incorruption; no one else but the Image of the Father could recreate men in God’s image; no one else but our Lord Jesus Christ, who is Life itself, could make the mortal immortal; no one else but the Word, who orders everything and is alone the true and only-begotten Son of the Father, could teach men about the Father and destroy idolatry. Since the debt owed by all had to be paid (for all men had to die), he came among us. After he had demonstrated his deity by his works, he offered his sacrifice on behalf of all and surrendered his temple [i.e. his body] to death in the place of all men. He did this to free men from the guilt of the first sin and to prove himself more powerful than death, showing his own body incorruptible, as a first-fruit of the resurrection of all … Two miracles happened at once: the death of all men was accomplished in the Lord’s body, and death and corruption were destroyed because of the Word who was united with it. By death immortality has reached all and by the Word becoming man the universal providence and its creator and leader, the very Word of God, has been made known. For he became human that we might become divine; he revealed himself in a body that we might understand the unseen Father; he endured men’s insults that we might inherit immortality.
Athanasius, The Incarnation of the Word 4.20.54
This powerful tract and several others brought Athanasius into better favor with the Emperor and gave a clear set of arguments with which to combat Arianism. It was, however, not until after Athanasius’s death (A.D. 373) that Arianism was finally defeated at the Council of Constantinople (A.D. 381). It was here that the followers of Athanasius formulated the doctrine of the hypostasis which is based on Hebrews 1:3 and the Greek word hypostasis meaning “substance,” “nature,” and “being.” Therefore, the orthodox position regarding the doctrine of the Trinity is the following—“one essence in three hypostases” (mia ousia, treis hypostaseis).
The Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451)
At a subsequent ecumenical gathering, the Council of Chalcedon in A.D. 451, it was further affirmed that the two natures of Jesus Christ are understood as a Hypostatic Union. In other words, Jesus Christ is fully God and fully man at the same time (cf. John 1:1-3, 14, 18; Colossians 2:9; Hebrews 1:1-8). The final summary of the teachings of Athanasius are to be found in the Athanasian Creed which was not actually written by Athanasius, but by one who followed his teachings in the sixth century. As a result of his efforts the error of Arianism was finally defeated, but unfortunately it was not totally eradicated. To this day the erroneous teachings of the heretic Arius are embodied in the beliefs of the modern-day Jehovah’s Witnesses and various other individuals who have departed from the truth.
Louis Berkhof, the well-regarded Reformed systematic theologian, gives us the following summary of the doctrine of the deity of Jesus Christ. He carefully explains,
The Council of Nicea declared the Son to be co-essential with the Father (A.D. 325), while the Council of Constantinople (381 A.D.) asserted the deity of the Holy Spirit, though not with the same precision. As to the interrelation of the three it was officially professed that the Son is generated by the Father, and that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son…In this one Divine Being there are three Persons or individual substances, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This is proved by the various passages referred to as substantiating the doctrine of the Trinity. To denote these distinctions in the Godhead, Greek writers generally employed the term hupostasis, while Latin authors used persona, and sometimes substantia…Consequently many preferred to speak of three hypostases in God, three different modes, not of manifestation as Sabellius taught, but of existence or subsistence…The whole undivided essence of God belongs equally to each of the three persons. This means that the divine essence is not divided among the three persons, but is wholly with all its perfection in each one of the persons, so that they have numerical unity of essence…There are certain personal attributes by which the three persons are distinguished…Though they are all works of the three persons jointly, creation is ascribed primarily to the Father, redemption to the Son, and sanctification to the Holy Spirit. This order of the divine operations points back to the essential order in God and forms the basis for what is known as the economic Trinity.”
Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 82-83, 87-89
Summary statements regarding the doctrine of the deity of Jesus Christ can be found in the great ecumenical creeds as well as in creeds from the time of the Reformation. For example, the Nicene Creed (A.D. 325), the Council of Chalcedon (A.D. 451), the Athanasian Creed (A.D. c.500), and the Westminster Confession of Faith (A.D. 1647) all contain statements supporting the full deity and humanity of Jesus Christ. Sections from each of these historic creeds can be found in the Appendices that follow.
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Appendix A
The Nicene Creed
(Adopted in A.D. 325 and revised in A.D. 381)
We believe in one God, the Father All-sovereign, maker of heaven and earth, of all things visible and invisible;
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten [monogene] Son of God, Begotten of the Father before all the ages, God of God, Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten not made, of one substance with the Father [homoousian to patri], through whom all things were made; who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was made flesh of the Holy Spirit and the virgin Mary, and became man, and was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and was buried, and rose again on the third day according to the Scriptures, and ascended into the heavens, and sitteth on the right hand of the Father, and cometh again with glory to judge the living and the dead, of whose kingdom there shall be no end:
And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Life-giver, that proceedeth from the Father [and the Son], who with the Father and the Son is worshipped together and glorified together, who spake by the prophets:
In one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church: we acknowledge one baptism unto remission of sins. We look for a resurrection of the dead, and the life of the age to come.
(Source: Henry Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, 27-28)
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Appendix B
The Council of Chalcedon
(Adopted in A.D. 451)
Therefore, following the holy Fathers, we all with one accord teach men to acknowledge one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, at once complete in Godhead and complete in manhood, truly God and truly man, consisting also of a reasonable soul and body; of one substance [homoousios] with the Father as regards his Godhead, and at the same time of one substance [homoousios] with us as regards his manhood; like us in all respects, apart from sin; as regards his Godhead, begotten of the Father before the ages, but yet as regards his manhood begotten, for us men and for our salvation, of Mary the Virgin, the God-bearer [Theotokos]; one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, Only-begotten [monogene], recognized in two natures [en duo phusesin; i.e. TheHypostatic Union], without confusion, without change, without division, without separation; the distinction of natures being in no way annulled by the union, but rather the characteristics of each nature being preserved and coming together to form one person [prosopon] and subsistence [hypostasis], not as parted or separated into two persons, but one and the same Son and Only begotten God the Word, Lord Jesus Christ; even as the prophets from earliest times spoke of him, and our Lord Jesus Christ himself taught us, and the creed of the Fathers has handed down to us.
(Source: Henry Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, 54-55)
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Appendix C
The Athanasian Creed
(Written by followers of Athanasius’ teachings in A.D. c.500)
Whosoever will be saved: before all things it is necessary that he hold the Catholic Faith.
Which Faith except every one do keep whole and undefiled: without doubt he shall perish everlastingly.
And the Catholic Faith is this: That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity;
Neither confounding the Persons: nor dividing the Substance [Essence].
For there is one Person of the Father: another of the Son: and another of the Holy Ghost.
But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, is all one: the Glory equal, the Majesty coeternal.
Such as the Father is; such is the Son: and such is the Holy Ghost.
The Father uncreated: the Son uncreated: and the Holy Ghost uncreated.
The Father incomprehensible [unlimited]: the Son incomprehensible [unlimited]: and the Holy Ghost incomprehensible [unlimited, or infinite].
The Father eternal: the Son eternal: and the Holy Ghost eternal.
And yet they are not three eternals, but one eternal.
As also there are not three uncreated: nor three incomprehensible [infinites], but one uncreated: and one incomprehensible [infinite].
So likewise the Father is Almighty: the Son Almighty: and the Holy Ghost almighty.
And yet they are not three Almighties: but one Almighty.
So the Father is God: the Son is God: and the Holy Ghost is God.
And yet they are not three Gods: but one God.
So likewise the Father is Lord: the Son Lord: and the Holy Ghost Lord.
And yet not three Lords: but one Lord.
For like as we are compelled by the Christian verity: to acknowledge every Person by himself to be God and Lord:
So are we forbidden by the Catholic Religion: to say, There be [are] three Gods, or three Lords.
The Father is made of none: neither created, nor begotten.
The Son is of the Father alone: not made, nor created: but begotten.
The Holy Ghost is of the Father and of the Son: neither make, nor created, nor begotten: but proceeding.
So there is one Father, not three Fathers: one Son, not three Sons: one Holy Ghost, not three Holy Ghosts.
And in this Trinity none is afore, or after another: none is greater, or less than another [there is nothing before, or after: nothing greater or less].
But the whole three Persons are coeternal, and coequal.
So that is all things, as aforesaid: the Unity in Trinity, and the Trinity in Unity, is to be worshipped.
He therefore that will be saved, must [let him] thus think of the Trinity.
(Source: Philip Schaff, The Creeds of Christendom, Vol. 2, 66-68)
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Appendix D
The Westminster Confession of Faith (1647)
Regarding the Doctrine of the Trinity:
Chapter 2, “Of God, and of the Holy Trinity”
Article 3. In the unity of the Godhead there be three persons, of one substance, power, and eternity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost: the Father is of none, neither begotten, nor proceeding; the Son is eternally begotten of the Father; the Holy Ghost eternally proceeding from the Father and the Son.
Regarding the Person of Jesus Christ:
Chapter 8, “Of Christ the Mediator”
Article 1. The Son of God, the second person in the Trinity, being very and eternal God, of one substance and equal with the Father, did, when the fullness of time was come, take upon Him man’s nature, with all the essential properties and common infirmities thereof, yet without sin: being conceived by the power of the Holy Ghost, in the womb of the virgin Mary, of her substance. So that two whole, perfect, and distinct natures, the Godhead and manhood, were inseparably joined together in one person, without conversion, composition, or confusion. Which person is very God, and very man, yet one Christ, the only Mediator between God and man.
Article 2. The Lord Jesus, in His human nature thus united to the divine, was sanctified and anointed with the Holy Spirit, above measure, having in Him all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge; in whom it pleased the Father that all fullness should dwell; to the end that, being holy, harmless, and undefiled, full of grace and truth, He might be thoroughly furnished to execute the office of a mediator and surety. Which office He took not unto Himself, but was thereunto called by His Father, who put all power and judgment into His hand, and gave Him commandment to execute the same.
(Source: Orthodox Presbyterian Church, “Westminster Confession of Faith,” 12, 34-37)
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Select Bibliography:
Berkhof, Louis. Systematic Theology. 4th Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1941.
Bettenson, Henry, and Chris Maunder, eds. Documents of the Christian Church. 4th Edition. London, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Carr, Simonetta. Athanasius. From the series: “Christian Biographies for Young Readers.” Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2011.
Eusebius, Pamphilus. Ecclesiastical History. Christian F. Cruse, trans. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, Reprint 1992. See the Appendix: “A Historical View of the Council of Nice,” by Rev. Isaac Boyle.
Christy-Murray, David. A History of Heresy. London, England: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Douglas, J. D. ed. Who’s Who in Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.
Dowley, Timothy ed. The History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford, England: Lion Publishers, 1990.
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. 2nd Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2001.
“Alexandrian Theology,” by Paul Woolley
“Antiochene Theology,” by Paul Woolley
“Athanasius,” by John F. Johnson
“Athanasian Creed,” by John F. Johnson
“Arianism,” by Victor L. Walter
“Cappadocian Fathers,” by Victor L. Walter
“Chalcedon, Council of,” by J. H. Hall
“Christology,” by Ronald S. Wallace
“Constantinople, Council of,” by Craig A. Blaising
“Communication of Attributes, Communicatio Idiomatum,” by J. M. Drickamer
“Creeds,” by Geoffrey W. Bromiley
“Cults,” by Irving Hexham
“Firstborn,” by David H. Wallace
“Heresy,” by M. R. Farrer
“Homoousion,” by Craig A. Blaising
“Hypostasis,” by W. E. Ward
“Hypostatic Union,” by Craig A. Blaising
“Incarnation,” by Robert L. Reymond
“Jehovah’s Witnesses,” by Irving Hexham
“Jesus Christ,” by R. H. Stein
“Logos,” A. F. Walls
“Melitian Schisms,” by Craig A. Blaising
“Monarchianism,” by Craig A. Blaising
“Nicea, Council of,” by Craig A. Blaising
“Only Begotten,” by Everett F. Harrison
“Orthodoxy,” by J. I. Packer
“Paul of Samosata,” by Gary T. Burke
“Perichoresis,” by Stephen M. Smith
“Socinus, Faustus,” by P. Kubricht
“Subordinationism,” by Richard C. Kroeger & Catharine C. Kroeger
“Substance,” by Gary T. Burke
“Trinity,” by Geoffrey W. Bromiley
“Unitarianism,” by C. Gregg Singer
“Word, Word of God, Word of the Lord,” by H. D. McDonald
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Kelly, J. N. D. Early Christian Doctrines. 2nd Edition. New York, NY: Harper and Row Publishers, 1960.
Lane, Tony. Exploring Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2006.
Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity. Volume 1. Revised Edition. New York, NY: Harper and Row Publishers, 1975.
Noll, Mark A. Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1997.
Robertson, Archibald, ed. St. Athanasius: Select Writings and Letters. Volume IV. Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. Originally published 1891, Reprint 1998.
Schaaf, Philip. The Creeds of Christendom. Volume 2. 6th Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, Reprint 1998.
Woodbridge, John D., ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2020 – All Rights Reserved
The lush and verdant countryside of Ireland takes my breath away–it is so beautiful!
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Patrick – Missionary Evangelist to Ireland
Patrick (A.D. c.390-c.461), a young man raised by loving Christian parents, was thoroughly acquainted with the Bible and the evangelical faith. He was also greatly influenced towards faith in Christ by an old family friend by the name of Julias, who had been a slave in Ireland many years before. One day when Patrick was sixteen years old, he was out working on his Father’s farm and became aware of a disturbance on the beach near his house. He could tell something was going on by the loud cries of the sea gulls. Upon further investigation he discovered that “sea raiders” from Ireland had invaded the English coast and were preparing to attack the nearby village of Banavem. Knowing that he should warn his Father and Mother who were in the village Patrick tried to slip away undetected, but in his haste slipped and fell down the cliff overlooking the beach. As he tumbled downwards, he hit his head on a boulder and landed unconscious at the feet of the Irish leader. They tied him up in their boat and kidnapped him! Much later, when Patrick awakened he realized that he would probably never see his parents or England again. He put himself in God’s providential care. However, God did not leave him all alone for Julius, his Father’s friend, had also been captured in the battle for Banavem. By God’s grace they were able to stay together in captivity.
Patrick as a Shepherd
For six long years Patrick (sometimes known by the name, Maewyn Succat) served as a shepherd to an Irish chieftain by the name of Michlu (a Druid priest). He learned the language (Gaelic) and the local customs of the Irish, but he refused to worship the false deities of the Druid religion. Strangely, the Druid Priests had widely prophesied that a man from over the sea would come amongst them. He would humble the leaders of the land and lead the people to the Great God. The Druids greatly feared this man, yet they also acknowledged that he would cause them to take up “shepherd’s staffs” in submission to the Lord and end their war-like ways. Patrick often wondered who this man might be, but he never dreamed that he was the very man! Julius in the meantime discipled him, as he would his own son, teaching him the doctrines of the Bible. Patrick said of this time, “The Lord opened to me the sense of my unbelief that I might remember my sins and that I might return with my whole heart to the Lord my God.” It was during these formative years that Patrick matured in his own faith and in his desire to communicate the Gospel to the Irish people. His first interested listeners were the three children of Michlu: Gussacht, Emer, and Bronach. After six years, Patrick escaped with Julias to France and eventually returned home to England. He believed that God had called him to become a minister of the gospel and he was ordained. During his studies he experienced an intense desire to return to Ireland and evangelize his former captors. He once even had a dream when he heard a voice calling to him in Gaelic saying “Holy Boy, we beseech you to come and walk among us once more.”
The ruins of an ancient Celtic Church in the Irish countryside
Patrick finally returned to Ireland in A.D. 432, when he was 43 years old, and spent the next thirty years laboring there. He was appointed a missionary Bishop over that pagan land and risked his life many times in order to further the gospel. He had special ties to several of the chieftains and established many monasteries and preaching points throughout the land. He is the object of many legends and spurious tales, but none of these take away from the real man of God that he truly was. During his extended ministry he established thirty churches and baptized over 120,000 persons. How do we evaluate the ministry of Patrick? Merle d’Aubigne makes this learned assessment. He writes,
Succat, afterwards known as St. Patrick…returned to Ireland…ever active, prompt, and ingenious, he collected the pagan tribes in the fields by the beat of drum, and then narrated to them in their own tongue the history of the Son of God. Erelong his simple recitals exercised a divine power over their rude hearts, and many souls were converted, not by external sacraments or by the worship of images, but by the preaching of the Word of God. The son of a chieftain, whom Patrick calls Benignus, learnt from him to proclaim the Gospel, and was destined to succeed him. The court bard, Dubrach MacValubair, no longer sang druidical hymns, but canticles addressed to Jesus Christ. Patrick was not entirely free from the errors of the time; perhaps he believed in pious miracles; but generally speaking we meet with nothing but the gospel in the earlier days of the British church.
Merle d’Augbigne, The Reformation in England, Vol. 1, 28-29
The legacy of Patrick continues to survive today due many legends of dubious quality and his recognition as a “Saint” by the Roman Catholic Church. Thankfully, Patrick himself leaves an autobiographical book, The Confessions of Patrick, and a powerful poem entitled, The Breastplate of Patrick. The words of his poem give some idea of Patrick’s immense courage and unflagging resolve in facing down the wicked Druids. He placed his faith in “the strong name of the Trinity” and trusted that God would providentially protect him from “all Satan’s spells and wiles.” The Lord did not fail him, and he significantly blessed the ministry of this missionary-evangelist to Ireland. It is good for us to remember, that what others meant for evil (his kidnapping and enslavement), God meant for good (his knowledge of Ireland’s language and his love for the Irish people). Let us, then, rejoice in the life and ministry of Patrick and give thanks to God for the powerful gospel we proclaim!
The Breastplate of Patrick
I bind unto myself today the strong name of the Trinity, by invocation of the same, the Three in One, and One in Three.
I bind this day to me forever, by power of faith, Christ’s incarnation; His baptism in the Jordan river; His death on the cross for my salvation. His bursting from the spiced tomb; His riding up the heav’nly way; His coming at the day of doom; I bind unto myself today.
I bind unto myself today the power of God to hold and lead, His eye to watch, His might to stay, His ear to hearken to my need; The wisdom of my God to teach, His hand to guide, His shield to ward, The word of God to give me speech, His heav’nly host to be my guard.
Against all Satan’s spells and wiles, against false words of heresy, against the knowledge that defiles, against the heart’s idolatry, against the wizard’s evil craft, against the death-wound and the burning, the choking wave, the poison’d shaft, protect me, Christ, till Thy returning.
Christ be with me, Christ within me, Christ behind me, Christ before me, Christ beside me, Christ to win me, Christ to comfort and restore me, Christ beneath me, Christ above me, Christ in quiet, Christ in danger, Christ in hearts of all that love me, Christ in mouth of friend and stranger.
I bind unto myself the name, the strong name of the Trinity, by invocation of the same, the Three in One, and the One in Three, of whom all nature hath creation, Eternal Father, Spirit, Word, Praise to the Lord of my salvation: Salvation is of Christ the Lord.
“Patrick’s Breastplate” Translated by C. F. Alexander in Eerdman’s Handbook to The History of Christianity, 212
Resources for Further Study:
A Celtic Cross
Cahill, Thomas. How the Irish Saved Civilization. New York, NY: Anchor Books, 1995.
Christian History Magazine. Vol. XVII, No. 4, Issue 60. “How the Irish Were Saved: The Culture & Faith of Celtic Christians.”
Douglas, J. D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Celtic Church” by Robert G. Clouse
“Ireland” by Adam Loughridge
“Ireland, Church of” by Adam Loughridge
“Missions, Christian” by Ian Breward
“Ninian” by J. D. Douglas
“Patrick of Ireland” by Hugh J. Blair
d’Aubigne, Merle J. H. The Reformation in England. S. M. Houghton, ed. Volume 1. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1962.
Douglas, J. D., ed. Who’s Who in Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale Publishers, 1992.
Dowley, Tim, ed. Eerdman’s Handbook to The History of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1977.
“Patrick’s Confessions and Breastplate” in Great Christian Classics. Kevin Swanson, ed. Parker, CO: Generations With Vision, 2010.
Neill, Stephen. A History of Christian Missions. Second Edition. New York, NY: Penguin books, 1986.
Olsen, Ted. Christianity and the Celts. Downers Grove, Il: InterVarsity Press, 2003
Reynolds, Quentin. The Life of Saint Patrick. New York, NY: Random House, 1955.
Wace, Henry and William Piercy, eds. A Dictionary of Christian Biography. London, England: John Murray, 1911; Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendricksen Publishers, 1994.
Woodbridge, John D. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2012 – All Rights Preserved
“Thou made us for Thyself, and our heart is restless, until it repose in Thee.” Augustine, Confessions, Book 1
Augustine (A.D. 354-430) stands as the one of the foremost leaders and thinkers of the early church. He set the direction and tone of theological inquiry for centuries to come. Although Roman Catholics claim him as one of the most profound theologians within their tradition, many people today, especially Protestants, still read the writings of Augustine with great profit. What were the forces and events that shaped the thinking of this gifted and courageous man?
Aurelius Augustine was born in Northern Africa to a pagan father, Patricius, and a Christian mother, Monica. Of Monica’s three children, Augustine was often on her mind and in her prayers. She had a powerful influence upon Augustine’s early life by the example of her sincere devotion to Christ and pious lifestyle. This, however, did not keep her overly adventurous son from falling prey to iniquity. At sixteen he became a thief. He writes at a later date the following confession,
I lusted to thieve, and did it, compelled by no hunger, nor poverty, but through a cloyedness of well-doing, and a pamperedness of iniquity. For I stole that, of which I had enough, and much better. Nor cared I to enjoy what I stole, but joyed in the theft and sin itself. A pear tree there was near our vineyard, laden with fruit, tempting neither for color nor taste. To take and rob this, some lewd young fellows of us went, late one night (having according to our pestilent custom prolonged our sports in the streets until then), and took huge loads, not for our eating, but to fling to the very hogs, having only tasted them. And this, but to do what we liked only, because it was misliked…It was foul, and I loved it…Fair were those pears, but not them did my wretched soul desire; for I had store of better, and those I gathered, only that I might steal. For, when gathered, I flung them away, my only feast therein being my own sin, which I was pleased to enjoy.
Augustine, Confessions, Book 2
In time he gave way to sensuality and immorality, and at the age of eighteen he took a mistress and fathered a son. He also became deeply interested in philosophy and religion, but in not the Christianity of his Mother. The youthful Augustine felt that the moral demands of Christianity were too difficult to follow. Hence, he devoted himself to the Manichaean sect.
The Manichaeans followed the teachings of the ancient Persian philosopher, Mani (A.D. 216-c.277). He believed that the universe was dominated by two coeternal and coequal principles Light and Dark, or Good and Evil. Later this system was merged with Christianity by his followers who taught that the “god” of the Old Testament was evil and the “god” of the New Testament was good. This radical dualism explained for Augustine the conflict between good and evil that raged within the human soul. Each person was ultimately not responsible for their own sin, because in Augustine’s words, “It was not I who was sinning, but some other nature within me.” Eventually, Augustine abandoned the Manichaeans because of unresolved questions within their system of thought regarding the nature of evil. Augustine came to realize that all mankind was responsible before a single holy God for impure thoughts and actions. Although Augustine was slowly moving towards the safe-harbor of Christianity, he still had to travel through the stormy waters of Greek philosophy before he would find the Gospel.
During his period of searching Monica faithfully prayed for her wandering son, of which he gives glowing testimony in his book Confessions. Monica also continued to witness to him while he lived in Rome, where he founded a school of oratory and philosophy, and later in Milan, where he served as a professor of rhetoric (A.D. 384). She constantly kept the Holy Scriptures in front of him, and advocated that he speak personally with Bishop Ambrose in Milan (A.D. c.340-397) about Christianity. One day Augustine was sullenly sitting in the courtyard of his home contemplating his life when he suddenly heard a young boy’s voice (from a nearby home) repeatedly saying, “Take up and read, take up and read!” (Latin: Tolle Lege, Tolle Lege!). Dumbfounded, he reached for a copy of the Bible which his Mother had given him. He expressively writes,
I seized it and opened it, and in silence I read the first passage on which my eyes fell. “No orgies or drunkenness, no immorality or indecency, no fighting or jealousy. Take up the weapons of the Lord Jesus Christ; stop giving attention to your sinful nature, to satisfy your desires” (Romans 13:13-14). I had no wish to read more and no need to do so. For in an instant, as I came to the end of the sentence, it was as though the light of faith flooded into my heart and all the darkness of doubt was dispelled.
Augustine, Confessions, Book 8
From that time on Augustine resolved to lead a life of purity and simplicity. The God of the Bible had opened his eyes to his need for the Savior. Great intellectual that he was, though, he felt that he must satisfy his mind that the gospel of Christianity was truly reasonable. And so, he entered into a formal dialogue with a few friends (using the Socratic method of question and answer) in order to satisfy his understanding. As Augustine considered the truth claims for biblical Christianity he became convinced that God had revealed Himself in history through Jesus Christ and that the Bible was, indeed, an accurate and trustworthy guide to spiritual truth. Moreover, faith and reason were compatible and not incompatible. These conclusions were recorded by scribes and became the foundation for many of his future books. It was because of his personal acquaintance with so many of the immoral practices and philosophies of the world that he later became such a formidable spokesman for orthodox Christianity. He had been delivered by the Lord from guilt, sin, and sensuous living. He would never go back to his former way of life.
Immediately after this time of inquiry and discovery Augustine was baptized in Milan by Bishop Ambrose on Easter Sunday, A.D. 387. This was a great answer to prayer, and his mother rejoiced that her son was now a member the family of God. Unfortunately, Monica died soon after his conversion just before they were to return home to North Africa.
After becoming an ordained priest, Augustine put his enormous literary and verbal skills to use and wrote extensively about the major controversies of the day. He defended the doctrine of the Trinity, he preached on humility from the Sermon on the Mount, and he wrote on the concept of original sin and mankind’s fallen nature. In A.D. 396 the people of Hippo Regius, in northern Africa, strongly prevailed upon Augustine to become their Bishop. He humbly agreed and entered a period of life which was especially fruitful. In particular, Augustine distinguished himself by writing against the heretic, Pelagius (A.D. c.354-c.420). Pelagius was a British monk teaching in Rome who denied that mankind was born with the sin and guilt of Adam. He argued that each person became a sinner when they sinned in their own life. Pelagius made the following statements in his teaching,
“Everything good and everything evil…is done by us, and not born with us.” He also taught, “Adam’s sin injured him alone, not the human race.” And, “New-born infants are in the same condition as Adam before the Fall.” And, “That man can be without sin, if he choose.” And finally, “The Law, as well as the Gospel, leads to the Kingdom.”
Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, 56-57
Augustine was the main opponent of Pelagius throughout his lifetime and argued that the Scriptures clearly taught the doctrine of original sin and the imputation of that sin through Adam to every human being (see Romans 5:12-21). Pelagius’ heretical views were finally defeated at the council of Ephesus (A.D. 431) primarily through the writings of Augustine.
Augustine is also widely known for his attack on Roman paganism in his book, The City of God. What were the circumstances for writing this lengthy and polemical treatise? The generally accepted explanation is as follows,
When the Germanic Goths captured Rome in 410, it sent shock waves across the empire, with pagans blaming Christians for the disaster. To refute these charges Augustine penned his masterpiece, The City of God. In it he argued that there are two “cities” or communities—the City of Man and the City of God. The former is temporal and transitory; the latter is spiritual and eternal. He also rejected the premillennialism (also known as chiliasm, from the Greek word “one thousand”) of the early church and equated the reign of Christ and his saints with the entire history of the church, thus denying the idea of a literal, future kingdom of God on earth. He was the first orthodox theologian to teach amillennialism.
R. Clouse, R. Pierard, E. Yamaucchi, Two Kingdoms: The Church and Culture Through the Ages, 81
Thus, in this profound treatise Augustine builds a case for Christian involvement in the political sphere (the City of Man), yet not to the neglect of the theological sphere (the City of God). He colorfully writes,
Two cities have been formed by two loves: the earthly city by the love of self, leading to contempt of God and the heavenly city by the love of God, leading to contempt of self. The former glories in itself, the latter in the Lord…In the one city, the rulers and the nations that it subdues are ruled by the love of ruling; in the other city, rulers and subjects serve one another in love—the subjects by obeying, the rulers by caring for all…These two cities are two communities of men. One is predestined to reign eternally with God, the other to suffer eternal punishment with the devil…Citizens are born into the earthly city by a nature spoiled by sin, but they are born into the heavenly city by grace freeing nature from sin.
Augustine, The City of God, 14:28-15:2
Some theologians have erroneously used Augustine’s work The City of God as justification for the overly-authoritarian actions of certain Christian rulers, or for the supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church over all other human institutions. However, Augustine’s main point is that “the City of God” (ie: God’s Kingdom) is a present reality in the lives of all believers and that wherever they are involved the influence of God’s Kingdom will be dramatically felt. The final fulfillment of the Kingdom will come at Christ’s return with the creation of the new Heavens and the new Earth. God is the victor, not the political schemes or ecclesiastical endeavors of man.
Augustine died at seventy-five years of age, in A.D. 430, while the Barbarian Vandals besieged his fortified town of Hippo Regius. God’s Kingdom and his Gospel message would prevail despite the uncertainties of the post-Roman age. The precious doctrines of the Bible: the imputation of man’s sinful nature from one generation to another, Christ’s redemptive work on the Cross, and God’s ever expanding Kingdom here on earth had been defined, defended, and documented by this great champion of orthodox theology. Even in death, and the imminent defeat by warfare of his own home town, Augustine was certain of God’s triumph. As Jesus Christ himself boldly affirmed, “I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.” (Matthew 16:18b)
Three of my favorite Augustine books
Resources for Further Study:
Augustine, Aurelius. The City of God. Translated by Marcus Dodds. New York, NY: The Modern Library, 1993.
Augustine, Aurelius. The Confessions of Saint Augustine. Translated by E. B. Pusey. New York, NY: The Modern Library, 1999.
Bentley-Taylor, David. The Apostle from Africa: The Life and Thought of Augustine of Hippo. Ross-shire, Scotland: Christian Focus Publications, 2002.
Bettenson, Henry and Chris Maunder, eds.. Documents of the Christian Church. 4th Edition. London, England: Oxford University Press, 1963.
Carr, Simonetta. Augustine. From the series: “Christian Biographies for Young Readers.” Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2009.
Chadwick, Henry. Augustine of Hippo: A Life. London, England: Oxford University Press, 2009.
Clouse, Robert G., Richard V. Pierard, Edwin M. Yamauchi. Two Kingdoms: The Church and Culture Through the Ages. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1993.
Douglas, J. D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Douglas, J. D., ed. Who’s Who in Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.
Dowley, Tim, ed. The History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford, England: Lion Publishers, 1990.
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001.
“Ambrose,” by Victor L. Walter
“Augustine of Hippo,” by Norman L. Geisler
“Donatism,” by Victor L. Walter
“Pelagius, Pelagianism,” by Bruce L. Shelly
“Mani,” by W. Andrew Hoffecker
“Manichaeism,” by W. Andrew Hoffecker
Hollingworth, Miles. Saint Augustine of Hippo: An Intellectual Biography. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2013.
Houghton, S. M. Sketches From Church History. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Lane, Tony. A Concise History of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.
Latourette, Kenneth Scott. A History of Christianity. Vol. 1. Revised Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, 1975.
Warfield, Benjamin B. Calvin and Augustine. Philadelphia, PA: Presbyterian & Reformed, 1956.
Woodbridge, John D., ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2012 – All Rights Preserved
