“Christ as Mediator entered into the federal relation in which Adam stood in the state of integrity, in order to merit eternal life for the sinner. This constitutes the active obedience of Christ, consisting in all that Christ did to observe the law in its federal aspect, as the condition for obtaining eternal life. The active obedience of Christ was necessary to make His passive obedience acceptable with God, that is, to make it an object of God’s good pleasure. It is only on account of it that God’s estimate of the sufferings of Christ differs from His estimate of the sufferings of the lost. Moreover, if Christ had not rendered active obedience, the human nature of Christ itself would have fallen short of the just demands of God, and He would not have been able to atone for others. And, finally, if Christ had suffered only the penalty imposed on man, those who shared in the fruits of His work would have been left exactly where Adam was before he fell. Christ merits more for sinners than the forgiveness of sins. According to Gal. 4:4-5 they are through Christ set free from the law as the condition of life, are adopted to be sons of God, and as sons are also heirs of eternal life, Gal. 4:7. All this is conditioned primarily on the active obedience of Christ. Through Christ the righteousness of faith is substituted for the righteousness of the law, Rom. 10:3-4. Paul tells us that by the work of Christ ‘the righteousness of the law is fulfilled in us,’ Rom. 8:3-4; and that we are made ‘the righteousness of God in Him,’ 2 Cor. 5:21.” (Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 380)
Source: Louis Berkhof. Systematic Theology. 4th Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdman’s Publishing Company, 1939.
“The Reformers believed that the will, although in a fallen state, could still achieve civic virtue or civic righteousness. Fallen man can still obey the traffic lights and so on, but he cannot incline himself to the things of God. Jesus said, ‘This is why I told you that no one can come to me unless it is granted him by the Father’ (John 6:65). ‘No one can’ means that no one is able. One of the key doctrines of the Reformation was sola gratia, meaning that we are saved by God’s grace alone and not from our own efforts. Does fallen man have the ability to turn to Christ and to choose Him before he is born of the Holy Spirit? Most professing evangelical Christians today believe that faith comes first and then rebirth. This presupposes that the unconverted person has the ability to incline himself, or choose to come, to Jesus Christ. Augustine, Luther, Calvin, and Edwards said that no one is able to do that. If we continue to think that in our fallen state we have the moral ability to come to Christ apart from the grace of God, we do so at our own peril. In John 6:65, our Lord clearly says that no one is able to come to Him unless the ability to do so is given to him by the Father. Fortunately for us, Jesus puts the word ‘unless’ in the statement. That word points to what we call a necessary condition, a sine qua non. A necessary condition has to be met before a desired result can occur. The desired result is coming to Christ; the necessary condition is that the ability to come must be given to each person by the Father. Only God gives that ability. No one can come to Christ on his own; we are not able to, unless God gives us the moral ability to do it.” (Sproul, Truths We Confess, 235-236)
Source: Sproul, R. C. Truths We Confess: A Systematic Exposition of the Westminster Confession of Faith. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2019.
The present reality of the Kingdom of God was persistently taught by John Calvin in the 1500’s and it made a profound and positive impact upon the people of Geneva, Switzerland and many others
“And behold, I am with you always, to the end of the age.” Matthew 28:20b
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Introduction:
Our Lord gives a defining picture of the chronology of the world in multiple passages throughout the Gospels. He speaks of “this age” and “the age to come.” In other words, Jesus teaches that there are two “ages” that we should be concerned about, and no others. “This age” refers to the present age in which we now live here on the earth. And the phrase “the age to come” refers to that age which is called the “new heavens and the new earth” where will we live with the Lord in heaven. There are not three ages: this age, an in-between age, and the age to come. There are only two ages.
“This age” in which we now live—our earthly existence—is identified with that time in which the kingdom of God “breaks-through” into human history and grows and expands into every dark corner of the earth. It anticipates the consummation of that kingdom in “the age to come.” The kingdom of God is already present, but it is not yet fulfilled. Hence, there is an over-lap between the two ages. This is sometimes referred to as the “already, but not yet” principle of the kingdom of God. To repeat, the kingdom of God is already present, but it is not yet fulfilled—there is more to come at the consummation of all earth history when Jesus Christ returns.
“This Age” and “the Age to Come” according to Geerhardus Vos
This way of thinking is often called an “inaugurated eschatology.” Simply stated, inaugurated eschatology is the belief in Christian doctrine that the end times were inaugurated in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus, and thus there are both “already” and “not yet” aspects to the kingdom of God. Christians now live as present-day members of the kingdom of God while still anticipating a future consummation. The kingdom of God is both “realized” in the present time, but it is also “anticipated” in the future as greater fulfillments are expected.
Key Bible Passages: (all italics are mine)
“Therefore I tell you, every sin and blasphemy will be forgiven people, but the blasphemy against the Spirit will not be forgiven. And whoever speaks a word against the Son of Man will be forgiven, but whoever speaks against the Holy Spirit will not be forgiven, either in this age or in the age to come.” Matthew 12:31-32
[The Parable of the Weeds explained] “The field is the world, and the good seed is the sons of the kingdom. The weeds are the sons of the evil one, and the enemy who sowed them is the devil. The harvest is the close of the age, and the reapers are the angels. Just as the weeds are gathered and burned with fire, so will it be at the close of the age.” Matthew 13:38-40
[The Parable of the Net] “So it will be at the close of the age. The angels will come out and separate the evil from the righteous and throw them into the fiery furnace. In that place there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.” Matthew 13:49-50
“As he sat on the Mount of Olives, the disciples came to him privately, saying, ‘Tell us, when will these things be, and what will be the sign of your coming and of the close of the age?’” Matthew 24:3
“And behold, I am with you always, to the end of the age.” Matthew 28:20b
“Jesus said, ‘Truly, I say to you, there is no one who has left house or brothers or sisters or mother or father or children or lands, for my sake and for the gospel, who will not receive a hundredfold now in this time, house and brothers and sisters and mothers and children and lands, with persecutions, and in the age to come eternal life.’” Mark 10:29-30
“And he said to them, ‘Truly, I say to you, there is no one who has left house or wife or brothers or parents or children, for the sake of the kingdom of God, who will not receive many times more in this time, and in the age to come eternal life.’” Luke 18:29-30
“And Jesus said to them, ‘The sons of this age marry and are given in marriage, but those who are considered worthy to attain to that age and to the resurrection from the dead neither marry nor are given in marriage, for they cannot die anymore, because they are equal to angels and are sons of God, being sons of the resurrection.’” Luke 20:34-36
“Where is the one who is wise? Where is the scribe? Where is the debater of this age?” 1 Corinthians 1:20
“Yet among the mature we do impart wisdom, although it is not a wisdom of this age or of the rulers of this age, who are doomed to pass away. But we impart a secret and hidden wisdom of God, which God decreed before the ages for our glory. None of the rulers of this age understood this, for if they had, they would not have crucified the Lord of glory.” 1 Corinthians 2:6-8
“In that case the god of this world [in Greek: aeon = age] has blinded the minds of the unbelievers, to keep them from seeing the light of the gospel of the glory of Christ, who is the image of God.” 2 Corinthians 4:4
“Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ, who gave himself for our sins to deliver us from the present evil age, according to the will of our God and Father, to whom be the glory forever and ever. Amen.” Galatians 1:3-5
“…according to the working of his great might that we worked in Christ when he raised him from the dead and seated him at his right hand in the heavenly places, far above all rule and authority and power and dominion, and above every name that is named, not only in this age but also in the one to come.” Ephesians 1:19b-21
“As for the rich in the present age, charge them not to be haughty, nor to set their hopes on the uncertainty of riches, but on God, who richly provides us with everything to enjoy. They are to do good, to be rich in good works, to be generous and ready to share, thus storing up treasure for themselves as a good foundation for the future [lit. “for the coming age”], so that they may take hold of that which is truly life.” 1 Timothy 6:17-19
“For the grace of God has appeared, bringing salvation for all people, training us to renounce ungodliness and worldly passions, and to live self-controlled, upright, and godly lives in the present age, waiting for our blessed hope, the appearing of the glory of our great God and Savior Jesus Christ, who gave himself for us to redeem us from all lawlessness and to purify for himself a people for his own possession who are zealous for good works.” Titus 2:11-14
“For it is impossible, in the case of those who have once been enlightened, who have tasted the heavenly gift, and have shared in the Holy Spirit, and have tasted the goodness of the word of God and the powers of the age to come, and then have fallen away, to restore them again to repentance, since they are crucifying once again the Son of God to their own harm and holding him up to contempt.” Hebrews 6:4-7
Significant Quotations:
Dr. Cornelis P. Venema
— Cornelis P. Venema (b. 1954) “In the coming of Christ, the long-awaited coming of God’s kingdom is inaugurated. In the Gospels, both John the Baptist and Jesus announce in their preaching that the kingdom of God ‘is at hand’ (literally, ‘has drawn near’, Matt. 3:2, Mark 1:15). When Christ cast out demons, he testified to the Pharisees that this was evidence that the kingdom of God ‘had come upon them’ (Matt. 12:28). Similarly, the Gospel accounts of Christ’s miracles and the authority with which he commissioned the disciples to preach the gospel of the kingdom serve to confirm that, with his coming, the Old Testament promise regarding the future coming of the kingdom is being fulfilled. Though this kingdom has not yet come in all of its fullness, it has come in the person and work Jesus Christ, in his life, death, resurrection and ascension to the Father’s right hand, whence he presently reigns until all of his enemies have been subdued beneath his feet (1 Cor. 15:25).” (Venema, The Promise of the Future, 26)
Dr. George Eldon Ladd
— George Eldon Ladd (1911-1982) “There is a powerful dualism in the New Testament: God’s will is done in heaven; his Kingdom brings it to earth. In the Age to Come, heaven descends to earth and lifts historical existence to a new level of redeemed life (Rev. 21:2-3). This is hinted at, although not elaborated on, in the Gospels. Those who ‘attain to that age and to the resurrection from the dead neither marry nor are given in marriage, for they cannot die any more, because they are equal to angels and are sons of God, being sons of the resurrection’ (Lk. 20:35-36). Here is a truly inconceivable order of existence. There are no human analogies to describe existence without the physiological and sociological bonds of sex and family. But this is the will of God: to conquer evil and to bring his people finally into the blessed immortality of the eternal life of the Age to Come.” (Ladd, A Theology of the New Testament, 69)
“If God’s Kingdom is the gift of life bestowed upon his people when he manifests his rule in eschatological glory, and if God’s Kingdom is also God’s rule invading history before the eschatological consummation, it follows that we may expect God’s rule in the present to bring a preliminary blessing to his people. This is in fact what we find. The Kingdom is not only an eschatological gift belonging to the age to come; it is also a gift to be received in the old aeon.” (Ladd, A Theology of the New Testament, 72)
Dr. Anthony A. Hoekema
— Anthony A. Hoekema (1913-1988) “The nature of New Testament eschatology may be summed up under three observations: (1) the great eschatological event predicted in the Old Testament has happened; (2) what the Old Testament writers seems to depict as one movement is now seen to involve two stages: the present age and the age of the future; and (3) the relation between these two eschatological stages is that the blessings of the present age are the pledge and guarantee of greater blessings to come.” (Hoekema, The Bible and the Future, 21-22)
Dr. Geerhardus Vos
“At this point we should take a look at a theologian who has made a significant contribution to eschatological studies, but who has not received the attention he deserves. I refer to Geerhardus Vos (1862-1949), who was professor of Biblical Theology at Princeton Theological Seminary from 1893-1932…In his Pauline Eschatology, published in 1930, Vos further developed these insights, particularly as they reflected the teachings of the Apostle Paul. For the Old Testament writers, he states, the distinction between ‘this age’ and the ‘age to come’ was thought of simply in terms of chronological succession. But when the Messiah whose coming these Old Testament writers had predicted actually arrived on the scene, the eschatological process had in principle already begun, and therefore the simple scheme of chronological succession between this age or world and the age or world to come was no longer adequate. The Messianic appearance now began to unfold itself into two successive epochs; ‘the age to come was perceived to bear in its womb another age to come’ [Vos, The Pauline Eschatology, 36]…According to Vos, therefore, the New Testament believer lives both in the age or world and in the age or world to come at the same time. Vos would therefore agree with Dodd that there is a sense in which the age to come has already arrived. He would differ from Dodd, however, in maintaining that there will be a future Parousia or Second Coming of Christ, and a future consummation of the age or world to come in which all its potentialities will be fully realized.” (Hoekema, The Bible and the Future, 298-299)
Dr. Herman Ridderbos
— Herman Ridderbos (1909-2007) “The coming of the Lord can for this reason not only be a motive for sanctification, but also a source and ground of comfort in the present ‘affliction,’ a word that does not merely refer to an incidental setback of difficulty, but very definitely characterizes the last phase of the present world preceding the coming of Christ. Therefore the revelation of the Lord Jesus from heaven also signifies rest for those who are now in this distress (2 These. 1:6-ff). Because of this hope of the glory of God the church may glory in this affliction (Rom 5: 2-5). Affliction, suffering, and glory frequently occur in one context (Rom. 8:18), indeed in the former lie the announcement and proof of the latter (Rom. 8:19-23). Hope in the appearing of Christ (Tit. 2:13) is accordingly the distinguishing mark of the Christian life (Rom. 8:24; Gal. 5:5). As the one who will appear, Christ is the hope of glory (Col. 1:27), or in the absolute sense ‘our hope’ (1 Tim. 1:1), with whose manifestation the church, too, will be manifested in glory (Col. 3:4). It is this glory which is time and again held out in prospect to the church that now finds itself in distress and suffering (1 Cor. 15:43; 2 Cor. 3:18, 4:17; Eph. 1:18; Phil. 3:4; 2 Thess. 2:14; 2 Tim. 1:10), and on which its hope is set (Col. 1:5; 1 Thess. 5:8; Tit. 1:2, 2:13, 3:7). And with what intensity this expectation is charged all those passages prove in which the apostle strongly accentuates the ‘not yet’ of the present. These the sparks shoot, as it were, to and fro between the two poles (Rom. 8:18-ff; 2 Cor. 4:16-18); there it is evident what a living and fervent longing supports and glows through all the preaching of the apostle (cf. Rom 7:24, 25, 8:23, et al.).” (Ridderbos, Paul: An Outline of His Theology, 488-489).
— Dr. Kim Riddlebarger (b. 1954)
“Both Jesus and Paul repeatedly spoke of “this age” and the “age to come” as two successive and qualitatively distinct eschatological periods. In three places in the synoptic Gospels, our Lord explicitly contrasted “this age” with “an age to come.” In Matthew 12:32 Jesus spoke of the impossibility of forgiveness for blasphemy against the Holy Spirit either “in this age or the age to come.” In Luke 18:29-30 Jesus spoke about the kingdom of God in response to the unbelief expressed by the rich young ruler. Jesus said, “I tell you the truth…no one who has left home or wife or brothers or parents or children for the sake of the kingdom of God will fail to receive many times as much in this age and, in the age to come, eternal life.” In Luke 20:34-35 Jesus declared, “The people of this age neither marry nor are given in marriage. But those who are considered worthy of taking part in that age and in the resurrection from the dead will neither marry nor be given in marriage, and they can no longer die; for thy are like the angels. They are God’s children, since they are children of the resurrection.” These texts make it clear that our Lord understood these two ages as successive and qualitatively distinct.” (Riddlebarger, A Case for Amillennialism, 82)
— Dr. Craig G. Bartholomew (b. 1961) and Dr. Michael W. Goheen (b. 1955)
“But if the old has passed away and the new has come, why do evil and death remain in the world? Paul’s letters are charged with the same tension between the “already” and “not yet” aspects of the kingdom of God that we have seen in Jesus’s own teachings but with some differences in emphasis. For Paul, the kingdom is here already in that Jesus’s death brings an end to the old and his resurrection inaugurates the new. The Spirit is described as a deposit (or down payment) on the coming kingdom (2 Cor. 1:22; 5:5; Eph. 1:14). A deposit is not merely an IOU or promise for the future; instead, it is a real payment given now as a guarantee that in the future the rest will be paid. The Spirit is also pictured as first fruits, the first part of the harvest, ready to be enjoyed now, and tangible evidence that the remainder of the harvest will also come (Rom. 8:23). The kingdom has not yet arrived for us in its fullness. We remain in a world that has not yet been fully delivered from the influence of evil, demonic powers (2 Cor. 4:4). We are still surrounded by the darkness of sin and rebellion against God (Eph. 2:2-3), even while we anticipate the full revelation of God’s kingdom in which those things shall be no more. Thus, in Paul’s thought there is no clearly marked threshold between the present age and the age to come. We live in the in-between time, in which the two ages overlap.” (Bartholomew and Goheen, The Drama of Scripture, 206-207)
These particular books have helped me to understand the present reality of the Kingdom of God more than any others–each one is superlative!
Resources for Further Study:
Bartholomew, Craig G. and Michael W. Goheen. The Drama of Scripture: Finding Our Place in the Biblical Story, Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2014.
Elwell, Walter A. ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2001.
“Age, Ages” by George E. Ladd
“Eschatology” by Frederick F. Bruce
“Kingdom of Christ, God, Heaven” by George E. Ladd
“Millennium, Views of the” by Robert G. Clouse
“Realized Eschatology” by Gary M. Burge
“Second Coming of Christ” by Millard J. Ericksen
“This Age, The Age to Come” by Gary M. Burge
Hoekema, Anthony. The Bible and the Future. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1979.
Ladd, George Eldon. A Theology of the New Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1974.
Ladd, George Eldon. The Presence of the Future: An Eschatology of Biblical Realism. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1974.
Lloyd-Jones, Martyn. The Kingdom of God. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 1992.
Ridderbos, Herman. The Coming of the Kingdom. Raymond O. Zorn, ed. H. de Jongste, trans. Philadelphia, PA: The Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing company, 1962.
Ridderbos, Herman. Paul: An Outline of His Theology. John R. De Witt, Trans. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1975.
Riddlebarger, Kim. The Case for Amillennialism: Understanding the End Times. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2003.
Venema, Cornelis P. The Promise of the Future. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2000.
Vos, Geerhardus. The Kingdom of God and the Church. Originally published in 1903; Dallas, TX: Fontes Press, Reprint, 2017.
Vos, Geerhardus. The Pauline Eschatology. Originally published in 1930; Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, Reprint 1979.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright April, 2022 – All Rights Reserved
Within all of the varieties of Protestant theology there are two central systems of thought regarding the doctrine of salvation–it is entirely of God (monergism), or it is a cooperative effort by God and man (synergism). Both systems of theology are named after men–John Calvin’s teaching reflects the monergistic view, and Jacobus Arminius’ teaching represents the synergistic view. Moreover, it must be noted that both men would probably be very uncomfortable with having their names attached to these two systems of thought–Calvinism and Arminianism. Nevertheless, their names are useful handles for identifying the differing views that each system claims. But what exactly are the differences?
J. I. Packer ably explains the differences in the quote below:
Dr. J. I. Packer (1926-2020)
“Now, here are two coherent interpretations of the biblical gospel, which stand in evident opposition to each other. The difference between them is not primarily one of emphasis, but of content. One proclaims a God who saves; the other speaks of a God who enables man to save himself. One view presents the three great acts of the Holy Trinity for the recovering of lost mankind—election by the Father, redemption by the Son, calling by the Spirit—as directed towards the same persons, and as securing their salvation infallibly. The other view gives each act a different reference (the objects of redemption being all mankind, of calling, all who hear the gospel, and of election, those hearers who respond), and denies that any man’s salvation is secured by any of them. The two theologies thus conceive the plan of salvation in quite different terms. One makes salvation depend on the work of God, the other on a work of man; one regards faith as part of God’s gift of salvation, the other as man’s own contribution to salvation; one gives all the glory of saving sinners to God, the other divides the praise between God, who, so to speak, built the machinery of salvation, and man, who by believing operated it. Plainly, these differences are important, and the permanent value of the five points, as a summary of Calvinism, is that they make clear the areas in which, and the extent to which, the two conceptions are at variance.”
J. I. Packer, A Quest for Godliness: The Puritan Vision of the Christian Life, 128-129
These are not inconsequential matters, or just abstruse theological technicalities. Which system you adhere to gets at the very essence of the Gospel and how you lead your life as a Christian. J. I. Packer explains, “One proclaims a God who saves; the other speaks of a God who enables man to save himself.” If it is God who does the saving–then that leads to a deep and abiding sense of security and an expression of gratitude. If it is man who does the saving–then that leads to a temporal and irregular sense of security and an expression of uncertainty.
As for myself, I am totally committed to preaching and teaching the view that God does the saving. Why? Because it is the clear message of the Bible. He elects in eternity (John 15:16; Acts 13:48; Rom. 9:16; Eph. 1:3-5). He calls and convicts the sinner (John 6:44; John 10:1-5, 27-29). He regenerates the unbeliever and gives him the gift of faith to believe and trust in Christ (John 3:3, 5; Eph. 2:8-9; Titus 3:5-7). He justifies, adopts, redeems, and reconciles the new believer so that he begins to manifest a new manner of life (Rom. 3:24-26; Rom. 5:1; Rom. 8:1-2, 14-17; 2 Cor. 5:17-21). And, He progressively sanctifies the believer throughout the remainder of his life (John 17:17; 1 Cor. 6:11; 1 Thess. 4:3). In short, God gets the all glory in the matter of salvation–Soli Deo Gloria!
— Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Here is a short list of some of J. I. Packer’s most insightful books:
Packer, James I. A Quest for Godliness: The Puritan Vision of the Christian Life. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 1990.
Packer, James I. Concise Theology: A Guide to Historic Christian Beliefs. Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 2001.
Packer, James I. Evangelism and the Sovereignty of God. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1961.
Packer, James I. Growing in Christ. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Publishers, 2007.
Packer, James I. Knowing God. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1973.
All three of these books by J. I. Packer are well worth your time to read–each has been a blessing to me!
Prof. Louis Berkhof of Calvin Theological Seminary
“Is immersion that only proper mode of baptism? The generally prevailing opinion outside of Baptist circles is that, as long as the fundamental idea, namely, that of purification, finds expression in the rite, the mode of baptism is quite immaterial. It may be administered by immersion, by pouring or effusion, or by sprinkling. The Bible simply uses a generic word to denote an action designed to produce a certain effect, namely, cleansing or purification, but nowhere determines the specific mode in which the effect is to be produced. Jesus did not prescribe a certain mode of baptism. He evidently did not attach as much importance to it as the Baptists do. Neither do the Biblical examples of baptism stress any particular mode…That this purification was sometimes effected by sprinkling, is evident from Num. 8:7; 19:13, 18, 19, 20; Ps. 51:7; Ezek. 36:25; Heb. 9:10…Neither is this possible in connection with the following passages of the New Testament: Matt. 3:11; Luke 11:37-38; 12:50; Rom. 6:3; 1 Cor. 12:13; Heb. 9:10 (cf. verses 13, 14, 19, 21); 1 Cor. 10:1-2. Since the word baptizo does not necessarily mean ‘to immerse,’ and because the New Testament does not in any case explicitly assert that baptism took place by immersion, the burden of proof would seem to rest on the Baptists…The passages referred to in the preceding prove that many Old Testament washings (baptizings) took place by sprinkling. In a prophecy respecting the spiritual renewal of the New Testament day the Lord says: ‘And I will sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean,’ Ezek. 36:25. The matter signified in baptism, namely, the purifying Spirit, was poured out upon the Church, Joel 2:28-29; Acts 2:4, 33. And the writer of Hebrews speaks of his readers as having their hearts sprinkled from an evil conscience, Heb. 10:22.” (Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 629-631)
“And those whom he predestined he also called, and those whom he called he also justified, and those whom he justified he also glorified.” Romans 8:30
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Every system of theology has a certain logical sequence in the order of salvation (Lat. ordo salutis). This is not a temporal sequence of events, but a logical ordering of the events. Humanly speaking, one may not be able to distinguish when it is that these particular events come about in the life of an individual Christian. However, contrasting one system of theology alongside another shows the differences regarding the logical progression of the eternal decrees of God and how the doctrine of salvation is perceived. Here are two systems of theology side by side—Reformed theology and Arminian theology. Notice the differences…
In Reformed Theology
Predestination & Election
An Outer Call & Inner Call
Regeneration (by Divine monergism)
Conversion (faith & repentance)
Justification
Sanctification (progressive)
Perseverance (by Divine protection)
Glorification
In Arminian Theology
Foreknowledge (foreseen faith)
Universal Calling (resistible)
Faith & Repentance (by Human decision)
Regeneration & Conversion
Justification
Sanctification (entire)
Perseverance (by faithful Human efforts)
Glorification
It is clear from this side by side analysis that the Reformed view emphasizes the sovereign activity of God, whereas the Arminian view emphasizes the personal decisions of individual men and women. This distinction is especially noticeable when the subject of regeneration is considered. Both theological positions recognize that regeneration is the work of God. However, the Reformed view claims that it is God alone who does this work (Divine monergism), while the Arminian view claims that God and man work together (cooperative synergism = God and man cooperating together). Moreover, note how in the Reformed view of salvation the work of regeneration precedes faith. In other words, without the sovereign work of God saving faith would not be possible. Thus, saving faith is truly a gift of God. Consider these explanatory statements by Louis Berkhof, R. C. Sproul, and J. I. Packer on the differences between the two theological systems—Reformed and Arminian—in the quotes below:
Prof. Louis Berkhof on the Order of Salvation:
Prof. Louis Berkhof
“This means that we take our starting point in those redemptive acts of God in which man does not cooperate, and in which redemption stands out most prominently as a work of God. By doing this we clearly recognize the fact that God and not man begins the redemptive process, and that salvation is altogether a work of divine grace, a work of which we become partakers only in union with Jesus Christ, with whom we are united by the work of regeneration. Many others, such as Lutherans and Arminians, take their starting point in man and begin their treatment of the order of salvation with a discussion of saving faith, considered more particularly as an act of man, by which he takes unto himself the blessings of salvation wrought by Christ. They do not speak of the application of the work of redemption by the Holy Spirit, but of its appropriation by man. And in this appropriation everything is made dependent on man’s act of faith. It is even by faith that man is regenerated. This representation clearly fits in with their conception of the free will of man. While we honor God as the author of our salvation, and as the primary cause of every redemptive act, we do not lose sight of the fact that, after regeneration, man appropriates the blessings of salvation by faith, and co-operates with the Spirit of God in some of the redemptive acts, such as conversion and sanctification.”
Louis Berkhof, The manual of Christian Doctrine, 92
Dr. R. C. Sproul on the Order of Salvation:
Dr. R. C. Sproul
“The classic issue between Augustinian theology and all forms of semi-Pelagianism focuses on one aspect of the order of salvation (ordo salutis): What is the relationship between regeneration and faith? Is regeneration a monergistic or synergistic work? Must a person first exercise faith in order to be born again? Or must rebirth occur before a person is able to exercise faith? Another way to state the question is this: Is the grace of regeneration operative or cooperative? Monergistic regeneration means that regeneration is accomplished by a single actor, God. It means literally a ‘one-working.’ Synergism, on the other hand, refers to a work that involves the action of two or more parties. It is a co-working. All forms of semi-Pelagianism assert some sort of synergism in the work of regeneration. Usually God’s assisting grace is seen as a necessary ingredient, but it is dependent on human cooperation for its efficacy. The Reformers taught not only that regeneration does precede faith but also that it must precede faith. Because of the moral bondage of the unregenerate sinner, he cannot have faith until he is changed internally by the operative, monergistic work of the Holy Spirit. Faith is regeneration’s fruit, not its cause.”
Sproul, Willing to Believe: The Controversy Over Free Will, 23
Dr. J. I. Packer on the Order of Salvation:
Dr. James I. Packer
“Now, here are two coherent interpretations of the biblical gospel, which stand in evident opposition to each other. The difference between them is not primarily one of emphasis, but of content. One proclaims a God who saves; the other speaks of a God who enables man to save himself. One view presents the three great acts of the Holy Trinity for the recovering of lost mankind—election by the Father, redemption by the Son, calling by the Spirit—as directed towards the same persons, and as securing their salvation infallibly. The other view gives each act a different reference (the objects of redemption being all mankind, of calling, all who hear the gospel, and of election, those hearers who respond), and denies that any man’s salvation is secured by any of them. The two theologies thus conceive the plan of salvation in quite different terms. One makes salvation depend on the work of God, the other on a work of man; one regards faith as part of God’s gift of salvation, the other as man’s own contribution to salvation; one gives all the glory of saving sinners to God, the other divides the praise between God, who, so to speak, built the machinery of salvation, and man, who by believing operated it. Plainly, these differences are important, and the permanent value of the five points, as a summary of Calvinism, is that they make clear the areas in which, and the extent to which, the two conceptions are at variance.”
Packer, A Quest for Godliness: The Puritan Vision of the Christian Life, 128-129
Thus, those who hold to a Reformed theology place regeneration before faith and repentance in the order of salvation (Lat. ordo salutis). In fact it is necessary that we do so, because asserting otherwise would be logically inconsistent with a belief in the doctrines of Total Depravity and Total Inability.
Resources for Further Study:
Berkhof, Louis. Manual of Christian Doctrine. Second Edition. Derek Carlsen, ed. Arlington Heights, IL: Christian Liberty Press, 2003.
Berkhof, Louis. Systematic Theology. 4th Edition, Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1941.
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2001.
“Arminianism,” by J. Kenneth Grider
“Arminius, James,” by J. Kenneth Grider
“Calling,” by James I. Packer
“Calvin, John” by W. Stanford Reid
“Calvinism,” by W. Stanford Reid
“Depravity, Total” by Charles C. Ryrie
“Foreknowledge,” by Geoffrey W. Bromiley
“Justification” by James I. Packer
“Monergism,” by C. George Fry
“Order of Salvation,” by G. N. M. Collins
“Predestination,” by Stephan R. Spencer
“Reformed Tradition,” by W. Stanford Reid
“Regeneration,” by James I. Packer
“Salvation” by R. E. O. White
“Sanctification” by R. E. O. White
“Semi-Pelagianism,” by Richard Kyle
“Synergism,” by C. George Fry
McKim, Donald, ed. Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1992.
“Augustine and Augustinianism,” by Eugene TeSelle
“Arminianism,” by Robert Letham
“Calvinism,” by W. Stanford Reid
“Faith,” by Daniel Migliore
“Free Will,” by James I. Packer
“John Calvin,” by Hughes O. Old
“Reformed Theology,” by John H. Leith
“Regeneration,” by Peter Toon
“Salvation,” by Anna Case-Winters
Packer, James I. A Quest for Godliness: The Puritan Vision of the Christian Life. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 1990.
Sproul, R. C. Faith Alone: The Evangelical Doctrine of Justification. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1995.
Sproul, R. C. Grace Unknown: The Heart of Reformed Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1997.
Sproul, R. C. Willing to Believe: The Controversy over Free Will. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1997.
Warfield, Benjamin B. The Plan of Salvation. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans, 1935; Avinger, TX: Simpson Publishing Company, Reprint, 1989.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2021 – All Rights Reserved
“It has become customary to speak of three offices in connection with the work of Christ, namely the prophetic, the priestly, and the kingly office. While some of the early Church Fathers already speak of the different offices of Christ, Calvin’s the first to recognize the importance of distinguishing the three offices of the Mediator and to call attention to it in a separate chapter of his Institutes…Some placed the prophetical, others the priestly, and still others the kingly, in the foreground. There were those who applied the idea of a chronological succession to them, and thought to Christ functioning as prophet during his public ministry on earth, as priest in his final sufferings and death on the cross, and as king now that He is seated at the right hand of God. Others, however, correctly stressed the fact that He must be conceived as functioning in His threefold capacity both in His state of humiliation and in His state of exaltation.” (Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 356)
Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion (1559):
“Therefore, in order that faith may find a firm basis for salvation in Christ, and thus rest in him, this principle must be laid down: the office enjoined upon Christ by the Father consists of three parts. For he was given to be prophet, king, and priest.” (Institutes 2:15:1)
Regarding Jesus’ Office as a Prophet:
Pastor John Calvin
“We see that he was anointed by the Spirit to be herald and witness of the Father’s grace. And that not in the common way—for he is distinguished from other teachers with a similar office. On the other hand, we must note this: he received anointing, not only for himself that he might carry out the office of teaching, but for his whole body that the power of the Spirit might be present in the continuing teaching of the gospel. This, however, remains certain: the perfect doctrine he has brought has made an end to all prophecies. All those, then, who, not content with the gospel, patch it with something extraneous to it, detract from Christ’s authority…But when Paul says that He was given to us as our wisdom [1 Cor. 1:30], and in another place, ‘In him are hid all the treasures of knowledge and understanding’ [Col. 2:3], he has a slightly different meaning. That is, outside Christ there is nothing worth knowing, and all who by faith perceive what he is like have grasped the whole immensity of heavenly benefits. For this reason, Paul writes in another passage: ‘I decided to know nothing precious…except Jesus Christ and him crucified’ [1 Cor. 2:2]. This is very true, because it is not lawful to go beyond the simplicity of the gospel. And the prophetic dignity in Christ leads us to know that in the sum of doctrine as he has given it to us all parts of perfect wisdom are contained.” (Institutes 2:15:2)
Regarding Jesus’ Office as a Priest:
“To sum up his argument: The priestly office belongs to Christ alone because by the sacrifice of his death he blotted out our own guilt and made satisfaction for our sins [Heb. 9:22]. God’s solemn oath, of which he ‘will not repent,’ warns us what a weighty matter this is: ‘You are a priest forever after the order of Melchizedek’ [Ps. 110:4; cf. Heb. 5:6; 7:15]. God undoubtedly willed in these words to ordain the principal point on which, he knew, our whole salvation turns. For, as has been said, we or our prayers have no access to God unless Christ, as our High Priest, having washed away our sins, sanctifies us and obtains for us that grace from which the uncleanness of our transgressions and vices debars us. Thus we see that we must begin from the death of Christ in order that the efficacy and benefit of his priesthood may reach us.” (Institutes 2:15:6)
Regarding Jesus’ Office as a King:
“Thus it is that we may patiently pass through this life with its misery, hunger, cold, contempt, reproaches, and other troubles—content with this one thing: that our King will never leave us destitute, but will provide for our needs until, our warfare ended, we are called to triumph. Such is the nature of his rule, that he shares with us all that he has received from the Father. Now he arms and equips us with his power, adorns us with his beauty and magnificence, enriches us with his wealth. These benefits, then, give us the most fruitful occasion to glory, and also provide us with confidence to struggle fearlessly against the devil, sin, and death. Finally, clothed with his righteousness, we can valiantly rise above all the world’s reproaches; and just as he himself freely lavishes his gifts upon us, so may we, in return, bring forth fruit to his glory.” (Institutes 2:15:4)
Westminster Shorter Catechism (1647):
Q. 23. What offices doth Christ execute as our Redeemer?
A. Christ, as our Redeemer, executeth the offices of a prophet (#1), of a priest (#2), and of a king (#3), both in his estate of humiliation and exaltation.
(#3) Isa. 9:6-7; Luke 1:32-33; John 18:37; 1 Cor. 15:25
Q. 24. How doth Christ execute the office of a prophet?
A. Christ executeth the office of a prophet, in revealing to us, by his word (#1) and Spirit (#2), the will of God for our salvation (#3).
(#1) Luke 4:18-19, 21; Acts 1:1-2; Heb. 2:3
(#2) John 15:26-27; Acts 1:8; 1 Pet. 1:11
(#3) John 4:41-42; John 20:30-31
Q. 25. How doth Christ execute the office of a priest?
A. Christ executeth the office of a priest, in his once offering up of himself a sacrifice to satisfy divine justice (#1), and reconcile us to God (#2), and in making continual intercession for us (#3).
(#1) Isa. 53; Acts 8:32-35; Heb. 9:26-28; Heb. 10:12
(#2) Rom. 5:10-11; 2 Cor. 5:18; Col. 1:21-22
(#3) Rom. 8:34; Heb. 7:25; Heb. 9:24
Q. 26. How doth Christ execute the office of a king?
A. Christ executeth the office of a king, in subduing us to himself, in ruling and defending us (#1), and in restraining and conquering all his and our enemies (#2).
(#1) Ps. 110:3; Matt. 28:18-20; John 17:2; Col. 1:13
(#2) Ps. 2:6-9; Ps. 110:1-2; Matt. 12:28; 1 Cor. 15:24-26; Col. 2:15
The Importance of this Doctrine:
“The distinction of the three offices of Christ is a valuable one and ought to be retained…The fact that Christ was anointed to a threefold office finds its explanation in the fact that man was originally intended for this threefold office and work. As created by God, he was prophet, priest, and king, and as such was endowed with knowledge and understanding, with righteousness and holiness, and with dominion over the lower creation. Sin affected the entire life of man and manifested itself not only as ignorance, blindness, error, and untruthfulness; but also as unrighteousness, guilt, and moral pollution; and in addition to that as misery, death, and destruction. Hence it was necessary that Christ, as our Mediator, should be prophet, priest, and king. As Prophet He represents God with man; as Priest He represents man in the presence of God, and as King He exercises dominion and restores the original dominion of man.” (Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 357)
For Further Study:
Berkhof, Louis. Manual of Christian Doctrine. Second Edition. Derek Carlsen, ed. Arlington Heights, IL: Christian Liberty Press, 2003. See: pages 80-85.
Berkhof, Louis. Systematic Theology. 4th Edition, Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1941. See: pages 356-366.
Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. John T. McNeill, ed. Ford Lewis Battles, trans. 2 vols. Library of Christian Classics, no. 20-21. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1960. See: Institutes 2:15:1-ff
Reymond, Robert L. “Offices of Christ” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Walter A. Elwell, ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2001.
The Westminster Confession of Faith and Catechisms. Willow Grove, PA: The Committee on Christian Education of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, 2005.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2021 – All Rights Reserved
What exactly is Presbyterianism? A belief in Presbyterianism is distinguished by three essential marks: (1) a belief in the sovereignty of God, (2) a belief in covenant theology, and (3) a belief in a church government led by elders. Presbyterian doctrines and practices are summarized in the historic Westminster Confession of Faith(1647) and the Westminster Larger and Shorter Catechisms. The practical outworking of these beliefs can be found in the Book of Church Order used by various Presbyterian denominations. The church historian, Dr. S. Donald Fortson III, describes who Presbyterians are in this way,
Being Presbyterian involves multiple layers of identity and connection. As Christians, Presbyterians are “catholic,” sharing the common heritage of ancient Christianity with all believers, of all times, in all places. Presbyterians are Protestant by conviction sharing the rich spiritual heritage of the sixteenth century in reaffirming the primacy of Scripture and the rediscovery of the Gospel. Within the sixteenth century Protestant Reformation, Presbyterians identify themselves uniquely with one of the church families known as the “Reformed Tradition.” In this stream, Presbyterians view themselves in special connection to the reforms of John Calvin, John Knox and the English Puritans. Historically, Presbyterians are also part of the evangelical movement; that is, they have embraced the legacy of the eighteenth century revivals (awakenings) in America and Britain and thus believe in the necessity of conversion experience, personal holiness and being missional. Each of these historic layers is equally important to Presbyterian identity…
S. Donald Fortson III, The Presbyterian Story, 7
The Sovereignty of God:
The Bible teaches that God is in control of all events, both the good and the bad. Sovereignty means that God rules and reigns in the midst of all circumstances, accomplishing all of his holy will (Genesis 50:19-21; Psalm 103:19; Proverbs 16:4; Ecclesiastes 7:14; Acts 2:22-24; Romans 8:28; James 1:2-4; 1 Peter 1:6-9). This does not mean that God is responsible for the evil behavior of men, rather that all men are “without excuse” for their sins and will answer to God for their wicked behavior (Matthew 25:31-32, 46; Romans 2:1-16, 14:10-12; 2 Corinthians 5:10). The doctrine of sovereignty in regard to salvation is best summarized by the “Doctrines of Grace” (which are also known as The Five Points of Calvinism):
John Calvin (1509-1564)
T – Total Depravity or Total Inability (Genesis 3:1-24, 6:1-8; Jeremiah 17:9-10; Mark 7:14-23; John 1:12-13; Romans 1:18-32, 3:9-18, 23, 6:23, 9:16). [Versus Human Ability or Pelagianism or Semi-Pelagianism]
L – Limited Atonement or Definite Atonement or Particular Redemption (Isaiah 53:4-6; Jeremiah 31:31-34; Matthew 20:28; John 10:1-5, 14-15, 27-29). [Versus Universal Redemption or General Atonement or Amyraldianism]
I – Irresistible Grace or Efficacious Grace (John 11:43-44; Acts 9:1-19, 16:14; John 6:44, 10:1-5, 27; 1 Corinthians 2:14; 2 Corinthians 2:15-16). [Versus Resistance of the Holy Spirit by Human Ability]
P – Perseverance of the Saints or Eternal Security (Matthew 6:16-20, 24:13; John 3:3-8, 6:37, 39, 47, 10:27-29, 15:8; Romans 10:8-10; Ephesians 1:13-14; Philippians 1:6, 2:12-13; 1 Peter 1:3-5; 1 John 5:13). [Versus Falling from Grace or Losing One’s Salvation]
A Covenant Theology:
Johannes Cocceius (1603-1669)
God has related to a certain people throughout history—His people. Thinking of National Israel as the people of God was the initial pattern for understanding this doctrine. However, it is clear that, “…they are not all Israel who are descended from Israel” (Romans 9:6). Thus, God’s people are those who are the spiritual descendants of Abraham rather than the physical descendants of Abraham (cf. Romans 2:28-29, 9:6-8; Galatians 3:7-9, 29; Ephesians 2:13-22). The relationship that God has enjoyed with His people has been shown through a series of expanding covenants. Each covenant had blessings that came with obedience and curses that came with disobedience. Each covenant is progressive, in that through time God has revealed more of His redemptive plan to successive generations. The ultimate expression of God’s covenantal relationship is revealed in the New Covenant which is accomplished by the redemptive work of Jesus Christ on the Cross. God’s covenant people are Believers, their children, and all who are in the visible church (cf. Genesis 12:2-3, 17:7-11; Deuteronomy 5:1-21, 7:7-9, 10:16; Psalm 103:17-18; Jeremiah 31:27-34; Acts 2:39; Romans 2:28-29; 1 Corinthians 7:14; Galatians 3:6-9, 29; Ephesians 2:14-16, 3:6-7; Hebrews 9). There are two Sacraments ordained by Jesus Christ: the Lord’s Supper and Baptism. The Lord’s Supper is a memorial feast where Christ is spiritually present in the hearts of every Believer–as taught by Martin Bucer, John Calvin, John Knox, Charles Hodge, A. A. Hodge, etc. Believers, both adult and children, are admitted to the Lord’s Table upon giving a credible confession of faith to the elders of the local church. Both adult Believer’s baptism and infant baptism are practiced in Presbyterian churches as a sign of our identification with Christ and and our entrance into the visible church. Infant baptism is based upon the covenant made by God with Abraham and all of his descendants (Genesis 17:7-14). The children of Believers are part of the covenant by virtue of their birth and are thereby entitled to its benefits and liable under its sanctions (cf. Acts 2:38-39; 1 Corinthians 7:14; Ephesians 6:1-4). In the New Testament the practice of circumcision has been superseded by baptism (Colossians 2:11-12).
A Church Government Led by Elders:
John Knox (1514-1572)
The Old Testament speaks of the practice of appointing elders. For example, Jethro gave his son-in-law Moses wise advice concerning the difficulty of leading the entire nation of Israel all by himself (Exodus 18:17-27). He urged Moses to pick out men of sound character to oversee all of the minor disputes. Moses would then be able to decide the major disputes that the elders could not handle. This practice was a prelude to the New Testament paradigm that would be developed by the Jesus Christ when he selected his disciples (Mark 3:13-19). The New Testament uses the Greek word presbuteros to refer to “elders,” and “older men” (Titus 2:2). For example, Paul instructed Timothy and Titus, both of whom were younger pastors, to seek out mature men to serve the local church as overseers or elders (2 Timothy 2:2). The specific qualifications for these local church leaders are given so that the character of each candidate might be thoroughly evaluated by the congregation (1 Timothy 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). After evaluating a man’s life, doctrine, family, and character the church confirms the calling of God by electing that man an elder. Duly elected elders can serve Christ’s Church in several different capacities, such as Evangelists, Pastors, and Teachers (Ephesians 4:11). There are two other Greek words implying Church authority that the Bible speaks of as well: diakonos (deacon) and episkopos (overseer or bishop). Within a Presbyterian form of government deacons are elected by the congregation for the purpose of meeting the physical needs of the people, visiting the sick, and administering the possessions of the Church. In many respects, the Presbytery serves as the episkopos over a group of churches in a specific region, and is made up of the all the regional elders. Rather than investing authority in a single individual to serve as a bishop, the collective wisdom of a plurality of godly elders is emphasized in decision-making for the whole Church. Beyond that, the Church has an annual meeting of elders from all the regional Presbyteries for the purpose of gathering together in a General Assembly (Acts 15:1-35).
American Presbyterian Denominations (Current List):
— Presbyterian Church USA (PCUSA) [1,302,000 members]
— Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) [384,000 members]
— Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC) [145,000 members]
— Covenant Order of Evangelical Presbyterians (ECO) [121,000 members]
— Cumberland Presbyterian Church (CPC) [87,000 members]
— Korean Presbyterian Church in America (KPCA) [55,000 members]
— Korean American Presbyterian Church (KAPC) [53,000 members]
— Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (ARP) [39,000 members]
— Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC) [30,000 members]
— Reformed Presbyterian Church US (RPC) [7,800 members]
— Bible Presbyterian Church (BPC) [3,500 members]
— Covenant Presbyterian Church (CPC) [13 churches]
— Reformed Presbyterian Church, General Assembly (RPCGA) [7 churches]
— Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States (RPCUS) [3 churches]
Source: “List of Presbyterian and Reformed denominations in North America” (Wikipedia, Accessed 4-29-2021) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Presbyterian_and_Reformed_denominations_in_North_America
Select Bibliography:
Dr. Loraine Boettner (1901-1990)
Boettner, Loraine. The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination. Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, 1932.
Clouse, Robert G. “Covenant Theology” in The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. J. D. Douglas, ed. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Fortson III, S. Donald. The Presbyterian Story: Origins and Progress of a Reformed Tradition. 2nd Edition. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2017.
Hart, Darrel G. and John R. Muether. Seeking a Better Country: 300 Years of American Presbyterianism. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2007.
Hodge, Archibald A. Outlines of Theology. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, Reprint, 1972.
Jellema, Dirk. “Predestination” in The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. J. D. Douglas, ed. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Lawson, Steven J. Foundations of Grace (1400 BC – AD 100): A Long Line of Godly Men. Volume One. Sanford, FL: Reformation Trust Publishers, 2006.
Lawson, Steven J. Pillars of Grace (AD 100 – 1564): A Long Line of Godly Men. Volume Two. Sanford, FL: Reformation Trust Publishers, 2011.
Dr. John H. Leith (1919-2002)
Leith, John H. An Introduction to the Reformed Tradition. Revised Edition. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1977.
Loetscher, Lefferts A. A Brief History of the Presbyterians. Third Edition. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1978.
Lucas, Sean Michael. On Being Presbyterian: Our Beliefs, Practices, and Stories. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2006.
McKim, ed., Donald K. Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992.
McNeill, John T. The History and Character of Calvinism. London, England: Oxford University Press, 1954.
Reid, W. Stanford. “Presbyterianism” in The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. J. D. Douglas, ed. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Reymond, Robert L. A New Systematic Theology of the Christian Faith. Second Edition. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1998.
Dr. R. C. Sproul (1939-2017)
Sproul, R. C. What Is Reformed Theology? Understanding the Basics. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1997.
Steele, David N., Curtis C. Thomas, S. Lance Quinn. The Five Points of Calvinism: Defined, Defended, and Documented. Second Edition. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2004.
Wells, David F., ed. Reformed Theology in America: Southern Reformed Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1989.
Wells, David F., ed. Reformed Theology in America: The Princeton Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1989.
Westminster Confession of Faith and Catechisms. Willow Grove, PA: The Committee on Christian Education of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, Reprint, 2008.
White, Henry A. Southern Presbyterian Leaders 1683-1911. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, Reprint, 2000.
Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2021 – All Rights Reserved
“I found it necessary to write appealing to you to contend for the faith that was once for all delivered to the saints.” Jude 3
Dr. Francis Schaeffer
Dr. Francis Schaeffer (1912-1984), the well known Christian apologist, gives us a helpful analogy in discriminating between doctrinal controversies. He called it the “Plateau of Orthodoxy.” Think of a plateau–a large mountain with a flat top and steep sides. If you were to list the primary doctrines of the Christian faith and assemble them all on the top of the plateau–doctrines such as the authority and historicity of the Bible, the Trinity, the imputation of Adam’s sin to all humanity, the deity of Christ, the virgin birth, the miracles of Jesus, the bodily resurrection of Jesus, salvation by grace through faith, the deity of the Holy Spirit, etc. These doctrines are all primary to the Christian faith, and therefore are essential to Christian belief.
Since these doctrines are solidly affixed to the top of the “plateau of orthodoxy” as primary beliefs, if a person rejects any one of them it leads that person to fall off the plateau into the abyss that lies below. In essence, they fall into the pit of error. This analogy, then, helps us in showing how there are core doctrinal truths (i.e. primary doctrines) that define the essence of true Christian faith. If any one of these core doctrines is rejected, then that person falls off the “plateau of orthodoxy” into the abyss of “heterodoxy” (Gk. heteros = “differing from the norm” or “a collection of false beliefs”). Religious groups who reject the essential doctrines of Christianity can be correctly identified as “cults” in that they have “…the form of godliness, but deny its power…” (2 Timothy 3:5 [NKJV])
Moreover, secondary and tertiary doctrines need to be distinguished from the primary doctrines. Christians may disagree over secondary and tertiary doctrines (e.g. the proper subjects of baptism, the details of Christ’s return, and the use of grape juice or wine in the Lord’s Supper), but there should be no disagreement over the primary doctrines. If there is disagreement over a primary doctrine, then that person is not holding to orthodox biblical Christianity. Moreover, some Christian groups have elevated secondary or tertiary doctrines to the level of primary doctrines (e.g. differences over which day is the Sabbath, the proper mode of baptism, and whether only Psalms should be sung in worship services in contrast to singing hymns). These practices place an undue emphasis upon secondary or tertiary doctrine so the group becomes “sectarian” in nature (i.e elevating secondary doctrines to a primary level). This is an unfortunate error that causes great harm. Such groups are known as Christian “sects.”
Christians everywhere should remember that we have “one shepherd” and we are “one body.” (cf. John 10:16, 17:6-11) We can unify with one another by uplifting our primary doctrines, and show grace to one another where we differ in secondary and tertiary doctrines. In this way, we preserve the purity of the Church, while at the same time exhibit the love of God for the brethren.
* * * * * * *
Dr. Francis Schaeffer coined several other intriguing expressions that further popularized his ideas. Here is a brief collection of some of these colorful sayings with each one of them explained by individuals who had first hand knowledge of Francis Schaeffer’s ministry:
True Truth — “Schaeffer’s quaint expression ‘true truth’ is typical of the penetrating style he employed to communicate. He invented terms and images that seemed rough wood, and yet allowed this message to get through…But truth for Schaeffer went right back to the God behind all created reality, a God who is there and not silent. If God is there, then there are answers to the deep human questions. If he is not, there are no answers. There is no point in waiting at the train station if no train is coming. Truth must lead to spiritual reality.” (Colin Duriez, “Francis Schaeffer” in Handbook of Evangelical Theologians, 245)
Honest Answers to Honest Questions — Francis and Edith Schaeffer established “the L’Abri ministry in Switzerland where many young intellectuals found hospitality and ‘honest answers to honest questions.’ Through that ministry, many of Schaeffer’s guests embraced Christianity. Schaeffer was an evangelist, rather than a professional philosopher, but he had a broad knowledge of philosophy, art history, music, literature, culture, and modern theology…Schaeffer led to Christ a number of younger thinkers…who applied his insights to the academic disciplines.” And: “Schaeffer…popularized a broadly presuppositional apologetic that frequently appealed to the history of philosophy and culture. Many came to believe in Christianity through his work.” (John Frame, A History of Western Philosophy and Theology, 537, 787)
Respecting the Differences — “The open nature of Schaeffer’s inerrantist view of the Bile is demonstrated in his stance on eschatology. Though he was a thoroughgoing premillennialist, he treated this position as of secondary rather than of primary importance. His relations with fellow Christians were unaffected by disagreements about the Millennium.” (Colin Duriez, “Francis Schaeffer” in Handbook of Evangelical Theologians, 258)
A Lack of Love — “Schaeffer never abandoned his commitment to the principles of ‘the purity of the visible church,’ but by 1951 he realized that there was something profoundly wrong within the separated movement. Basically this problem was the total lack of love among many of the movement’s leaders–so much so that it became filled with hatred, bitterness, and brutal tactics which were directed not only against their modernistic opponents but increasingly against one another within the separated movement. Again it must be stressed that Schaeffer never became a modernist, nor did he abandon the positive principles which led Christians to ‘separate’ from churches which did not really affirm historic Christian orthodoxy. But the error Schaeffer discovered was grave indeed. It nearly destroyed his own faith, while it made shipwreck of the lives of many and of the separated movement as a whole. Schaeffer eventually came to the place where he realized that this was so profoundly wrong that he described it as ‘counterfeit Christianity’ and a ‘heresy of practice.'” (Lane T. Dennis, “Introduction” in Letters of Francis A. Schaeffer, 14)
Worldview Criticism — “Schaeffer believes in the unity of truth. The doctrine of the inerrancy of Scripture, which he insisted on so strenuously, does more than simply insure doctrinal orthodoxy, as important as that is in an age that can substitute any irrational experience for religious truth. In the pages of the Bible, taken as normatively true on every level, Schaeffer finds a world view that brings together the ‘divided field of knowledge’ that characterizes the modern experience and that leaves us vulnerable to uncertainty, religious madness and despair…world-view criticism as practiced by Schaeffer actually opens up the whole range of the arts to the Christian. One does not go to a work of art to agree or disagree with it, but to understand the depths of personality that it expresses and to encounter the world view that it signifies. It involves what C.S. Lewis describes as ‘receiving’ rather than ‘using’ the work of art.” (Gene Edward Veith, “The Fragmentation and Integration of Truth” in Francis A. Schaeffer: Portaits, 34, 38)
No Little People, No Little Places — “If you grow up in an environment that conditions you to think that you are only a ‘little man,’ of no particular consequence, this idea becomes deeply ingrained in your own thinking. In this context, Francis Schaeffer’s teaching that there are ‘no little people,’ can cause an explosion in your inner self–giving you a new self-image, the courage to dream new dreams, and the strength to step out in faith to realize those dreams. The self-confidence generated by this new outlook may move you to seek recognition and importance for yourself. But Dr. Schaeffer also emphasized that there are ‘no little places.’ In other words, with God no place is unimportant, irrespective of how insignificant our world may consider it to be. And because there are ‘no little places’ with God we have reason and the strength to choose positions of seeming insignificance and powerlessness. When these two concepts are combined–that is, when the man of inner strength chooses a ‘small’ position–the result can have a deep impact on society because it is the opposite way of the world.” (Vishal Mangalwadi, “Truth and Oppression” in Francis A. Schaeffer: Portaits, 196-197)
Upper-Story Christianity — “In Schaeffer’s terms, religion was an ‘upper-story’ realm that had little to do with the ‘lower-story’ realm in which I lived, worked, and thought. Schaeffer, though, was a different bird entirely. Here was someone engaged with the arts, philosophy, and history, as I was, who insisted on relating them to Christianity. He was not simply integrating them into a nice homogenous whole–as in, ‘See how all great works of literature are really Christian as heart.’ I had heard that before, but did not really respect it much. To homogenize Christ to culture seemed to distort both. Schaeffer, though, was taking both Christ and culture seriously, setting them against each other, finding points of agreement and divergence, letting them battle it out.” (Gene Edward Veith, “The Fragmentation and Integration of Truth” in Francis A. Schaeffer: Portaits, 31)
Francis & Edith Schaeffer: They were an “impressive team” who blessed those who learned from their books, conversations, films, lectures, letters, and most of all from their hospitality.
Select Bibliography:
Dennis, Lane T., ed. Letters of Francis A. Schaeffer. Westchester, IL: Crossway Publishers, 1985.
Dennis, Lane T., ed. Francis A. Schaeffer: Portraits of the Man and His Work. Westchester, IL: Crossway Publishers, 1986.
Duriez, Colin. Francis Schaeffer: An Authentic Life. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 2008.
Duriez, Colin. “Francis Schaeffer” in Handbook of Evangelical Theologians. Walter A. Elwell, ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1993.
Frame, John M. A History of Western Philosophy and Theology. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2015.
“Thus it is written, ‘The first man Adam became a living being; the last Adam became a life-giving spirit.’” 1 Corinthians 15:45
Johannes Cocceius
Defining the word “Covenant” — In Hebrew > Berith = (lit.) “to divide”, “to cut in two”, or “covenant” (cf. Genesis 9:8-17; 15:9-10, 17-21; Exodus 31:16-17; 2 Samuel 23:5; Psalm 89:28-29; Isaiah 53:20-21; Jeremiah 31:31-34, 34:18-19). In Greek > Diatheke = “testament”, “will”, “covenant” (cf. Matthew 26:27-28; Romans 9:4, 11:26-27; 1 Corinthians 11:25; 2 Corinthians 3:4-18; Galatians 4:24; Hebrews 7:22, 8:6-13, 9:15-22, 12:22-24, 13:20-21). In Latin > Foedus = “covenant”, “compact”, “treaty” (we derive the English word “federal” from Foedus). The American Heritage Dictionary (1969) defines “covenant” in the following manner, “A binding agreement made by two or more persons or parties; a compact; a contract.”
A Biblical Pattern — “A binding agreement made by two or more persons” describes a contract negotiated between men or equals. Yet, a “covenant” between God and man has several differing aspects that make it unique: (1) Preamble: identifies the sovereign, (2) Historical Prologue: history of the relationship, (3) Stipulations: terms of the covenant, (4) Oaths/Vows: Promises that bind the parties, (5) Sanctions: blessings and curses, (6) Ratification: sealing the covenant by blood (animal sacrifices or the death of Christ). This unique pattern is found in the text of the Bible, and also in Ancient Near Eastern suzerain-vassal treaties amongst Hittite kings. No negotiation between parties takes place in establishing these types of covenants. They are imposed by the sovereign alone.
The Covenant of Works — When God created man He entered into a Covenant of Life (or Works) with him, upon condition of perfect obedience. Man was forbidden to eat from the “Tree of the knowledge of good and evil” upon the pain of death (cf. Genesis 2:16-17; Romans 1:18-20, 3:11-16, 5:18, 7:9-12, 10:5; Galatians 3:12-13). The Covenant of Works was further expanded by the giving of the Decalogue (the Ten Commandments), and by all the “case laws” which flow from these as expressions of true righteousness (cf. Exodus 20:1- 23:19; Deuteronomy 5-28). Dr. R. C. Sproul explains,
All human beings from Adam to the present are inescapably members of this covenant. People may refuse to obey or even acknowledge the existence of such a covenant, but they can never escape it. All human beings are in a covenant relationship with God, either as covenant breakers or covenant keepers. The covenant of works is the basis of our need of redemption (because we have violated it) and our hope of redemption (because Christ has fulfilled its terms for us).
R. C. Sproul, Essential Doctrines of the Christian Faith, 73)
The Covenant of Redemption — Some Reformed theologians make note of an eternal Covenant of Redemption, which is decreed by the hidden counsel of God prior to the creation of the heavens and the earth. Its purpose is to redeem a people out of fallen humanity to be God’s holy possession. In essence, it precedes the Covenant of Grace which is made known in history and it is foundational for the Covenant of Grace (cf. Deuteronomy 29:29; Jeremiah 31:31-34; Ephesians 1:4-6; 3:11; 2 Thessalonians 2:13; 2 Timothy 1:9; Titus 1:1-3; James 2:5; I Peter 1:2).
Ulrich Zwingli
The Covenant of Grace — Throughout human history there is one single unfolding Covenant of Grace whereby God redeems His elect out of the mass of fallen humanity and brings them to eternal salvation (cf. Leviticus 26:12; Jeremiah 32:33; Ezekiel 37:27; 2 Corinthians 6:16). The administration of this gracious covenant to an individual results in that person’s calling, regeneration, justification, sanctification, and glorification (cf. Genesis 3:15, 12:2-3, 13:14-18, 15:5-7, 15:18, 17:1-14, 21:12; Jeremiah 31:3, 31:31-34, 37:24-27; Romans 5:8-9, 8:29-30, 9:8; 2 Corinthians 3:6-18; Galatians 3:16, 29, 4:28; Hebrews 11:9-10). Reformed theologians emphasize the continuity of the Covenant of Grace as it progressively unfolds through time.
The Covenantal Structure of the Bible —This series of unfolding covenants highlights how God enters into covenantal relationships with individuals and groups for the purpose of foreshadowing the Covenant of Grace. God faithfully keeps covenant with His people and He preserves, protects, and provides for them throughout history.
The Covenant of Creation > Genesis 1:26 (Dominion mandate), 1:28 (Procreative mandate), Gen. 1:28 and Matthew 28:18-20 (Cultural mandate).
The Covenant of Commencement (Adam) > Genesis 2:16-17, 3:15, 21
The Covenant of Preservation (Noah) > Genesis 6:13-21, 9:8-17
The Covenant of Promise (Abraham) > Genesis 12:1-3, 13:14-17, 15:5-20, 17:3-14, 18:18-19, 22:1-19, 26:2-5, 28:13-15; Acts 3:25; Romans 4:1-25
The Covenant of Law (Moses) > Exodus 20:1-17; Deuteronomy 5:6-21; Galatians 3:17-22
The Covenant of the Kingdom (David) > 2 Samuel 7:12-17, 23:5; Psalm 51; Luke 1:26-33, 18:38
The Covenant of Consummation (Christ) > Genesis 3:15; Psalm 22; Isaiah 9:6-7, 53:1-12; Luke 1:26-33; Romans 3:24-26; 2 Corinthians 5:17-21; Galatians 3:13, 4:4-5; Hebrews 4:14-16; 1 Peter 2:21-24, 3:18; 1 John 2:1-2; Revelation 19:6-20
Continuity and not Discontinuity — Reformed theologians do not accept a dispensational program that radically divides the various covenants listed in the Bible. Dispensationalism emphasizes discontinuity rather than continuity.
The Dispensation of Innocence (pre-Fall Adam)
The Dispensation of Conscience (post-Fall Adam)
The Dispensation of Human Government (Noah and his descendants)
The Dispensation of Promise (Abraham and his descendants)
The Dispensation of the Law (Moses and the Priests)
The Dispensation of Israel (David, Solomon, Kings of Judah)
The Dispensation of Grace (from Acts 2, i.e. “The Church Age”)
The Dispensation of the Kingdom (The Return of Christ and the restoration of national Israel in an earthly Millennial Kingdom)
The Dispensation of Heaven (Following the Judgment Day)
Martin Bucer
A Divine Relationship — A truly wonderful picture of God’s association with His people emerges throughout the Bible when passages that emphasize the divine relationship between God and His people are examined. Note the progression through biblical history, but note as well the fact that there is only one group of people and not two (cf. John 10:15-16; Romans 2:28-29; Galatians 3:7-9, 29, 6:16; Ephesians 2:13-16).
“And I will establish my covenant between you and your offspring after you throughout their generations for an everlasting covenant, to be God to you and to your offspring after you.” Genesis 17:7
“I will take you to be my people, and I will be your God, who has brought you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians.” Exodus 6:7
“I will make my dwelling among you, and my soul shall not abhor you. And I will walk among you and will be your God, and you shall be my people.” Leviticus 26:11-12
“Listen to my voice and do all that I command you. So shall you be my people, and I will be your God, that I may confirm the oath that I swore to your fathers, to give them a land flowing with milk and honey, as at this day.” Jeremiah 11:4b-5a
“Then the word of the LORD came to me: ‘Thus says the LORD, the God of Israel: like those good figs, so I will regard as good the exiles from Judah, whom I have sent away from this place to the land of the Chaldeans. I will set my eyes on them for good, and I will bring them back to this land. I will build them up, and not tear them down; I will plant them, and not uproot them. I will give them a heart to know that I am the LORD, and they shall be my people and I will be their God, for they shall return to me with their whole heart’.” Jeremiah 24:5-7
“But this is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel after those days, declares the LORD: I will put my law within them, and I will write it on their hearts. And I will be their God, and they shall be my people.” Jeremiah 31:33
“And they shall be my people, and I will be their God. I will give them one heart and one way, that they may fear me forever, for their own good and the good of their children after them. ” Jeremiah 32:38-39
“And you are my sheep, human sheep of my pasture, and I am your God, declares the Lord GOD.” Ezekiel 34:31
“My dwelling place shall be with them, and I will be their God, and they shall be my people.” Ezekiel 37:27
“Thus says the LORD of hosts: behold, I will save my people from the east country and from the west country, and I will bring them to dwell in the midst of Jerusalem. And they shall be my people, and I will be their God, in faithfulness and in righteousness.” Zechariah 8:7-8
“What agreement has the temple of God with idols? For we are the temple of the living God; as God has said, ‘I will make my dwelling among them and walk among them, and I will be their God, and they shall be my people’.” 2 Corinthians 6:16
“Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth has passed away and the sea was no more. And I saw the holy city, new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God prepared as a bride adorned for her husband. And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying, ‘Behold, the dwelling place of God is with man. He will dwell with them, and they will be his people, and God himself will be with them as their God.” Revelation 21:1-3
The Bible (English Standard Version)
Salvation History — God covenanted with only one group of people— His elect; which has been typified in the Old Testament era by the Nation of Israel (cf. Deuteronomy 7:6-11; Galatians 3:16; Romans 5:15-ff; Isaiah 53:10-11). Thus, the elect existed in the Old Testament era and were known as True Israel, being distinguished from National Israel. Also, the elect have existed in the New Testament era and have been known as the Invisible Church, in contrast to the Visible Church (cf. Matthew 13:24-30; Romans 2:28-29, 4:1-25, 9:6-7, 11:11-24; Galatians 3:29, 6:16).
Progressive Revelation — The relationship that God has with His people can be shown through a series of expanding and telescoping covenants:
Creation > Adam > Noah > Abraham > Moses > David > Christ
Hermann Witsius
The New Covenant — Each covenant has blessings that come with obedience and curses that come with disobedience. Each covenant is progressive, in that through time God reveals more of His redemptive plan to successive generations. The ultimate expression of God’s covenant relationship is in the New Covenant [Gk. kaine diatheke] sealed by the work of Jesus Christ on the Cross. God’s covenant people are Believers, their children, and all who are in the visible church (Genesis 12:2-3, 17:7-11; Deuteronomy 5:1-21, 7:7-9, 10:16; Psalm 89:30-37, 103:17-18; Jeremiah 31:27-34; Acts 2:39; Romans 2:28-29; 1 Corinthians 7:14; Galatians 3:6-9, 29; Ephesians 2:14-16, 3:6-7; Hebrews 9).
John Calvin
The Sacraments — There are two Sacraments ordained by Jesus Christ: the Lord’s Supper and Baptism. The Lord’s Supper is a memorial feast where Christ is spiritually present in the hearts of every Believer (Martin Bucer, John Calvin). Both adult Believer’s baptism and infant baptism are practiced in Reformed churches as a sign and seal of one’s identification with Christ and the visible church (Romans 4:11-12) . Infant baptism is based on the covenant made by God with Abraham and all of his descendants (Genesis 17:7-14). Covenant theologians believe that the Bible is clear in stating that it was not just Abraham’s physical descendants, but his spiritual descendants who are truly the people of God (Romans 2:28-29, 9:6-8; Galatians 3:7-9, 29; Ephesians 2:13-22). The children of Christians are part of the covenant by virtue of their birth and are thereby entitled to its benefits and liable under its sanctions (Acts 2:38-39; 1 Corinthians 7:14; Ephesians 6:1-4). In the New Testament the practice of circumcision has been superseded by the sacrament of baptism (Colossians 2:11-12).
Resources for Further Study:
Archer, Gleason L. “Covenant” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Walter A. Elwell, ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001. See pages 299-301.
Bahnson, Greg L. and Kenneth L. Gentry, Jr. House Divided: The Break-up of Dispensational Theology. Tyler, TX: Institute for Christian Economics, 1989.
Beeke, Joel R. and Sinclair B. Ferguson, eds. Reformed Confessions Harmonized. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999.
Louis Berkhof
Berkhof, Louis. Systematic Theology. 4th edition, Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1941. See pages 262-301.
Bromiley, Geoffrey W. “Infant Baptism” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Walter A. Elwell, ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001. See pages 132-134.
Collins, George N. M. “Federal Theology” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Walter A. Elwell, ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001. See pages 444-445.
Gerstner, John H. Wrongly Dividing the Word of Truth: A Critique of Dispensationalism. Brentwood, TN: Wolgemuth & Hyatt Publishers, 1991.
Golding, Peter. Covenant Theology: The Key of Theology in Reformed Thought and Tradition. Ross-shire, Scotland: Christian Focus Publications Ltd., 2004.
Hodge, Archibald A. The Westminster Confession of Faith: A Commentary. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, first published 1869, reprinted 1958.
Horton, Michael Scott. Introducing Covenant Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 2006.
Mathison, Keith A. Dispensationalism: Rightly Dividing the People of God? Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed, 1995.
Moore, Edwin Nisbet. Our Covenant Heritage: The Covenanters’ Struggle for Unity in Truth. Ross-shire, Scotland: Christian Focus Publications Ltd., 2000.
John Murray
Murray, John. Redemption—Accomplished and Applied. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1955.
Murray, John. The Covenant of Grace: A Biblico-Theological Study. Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed, 1953.
Osterhaven, M. Eugene. “Covenant Theology” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Walter A. Elwell, ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001. See pages 301-303.
Osterhaven, M. Eugene. “Views of Lord’s Supper” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Walter A. Elwell, ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001. See pages 705-708.
Rayburn, Robert S. “New Covenant” in Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Walter A. Elwell, ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001. See page 301.
Reymond, Robert L. A New Systematic Theology of the Christian Faith. 2nd Edition, Revised and Updated. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1998. See pages 415-458, 503-544.
O. Palmer Robertson
Rhodes, Jonty. Covenants Made Simple: Understanding God’s Unfolding Promises to His People. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2013.
Robertson, O. Palmer. The Christ of the Covenants. Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed, 1980.
Sproul, R. C. Essential Truths of the Christian Faith. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992. See chapters #23, #24, #34, #35.
Sproul, R. C. Truths We Confess: A Systematic Exposition of the Westminster Confession of Faith. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2019. See pages 171-188.
Gerard Van Groningen
Van Groningen, Gerard. Messianic Revelation in the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1990.
Van Groningen, Gerard. From Creation to Consummation. Sioux Center, IA: Dordt College Press, 1996.
Vine, W. E. An Expository Dictionary of New Testament Words. Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1940. “diatheke” = “covenant”, “testament”
Vine, W. E. An Expository Dictionary of Old Testament Words. F. F. Bruce ed. Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H. Revell Company, 1978. “Berith” = “covenant”
Vos, Gerhardus, Biblical Theology: Old and New Testaments. Grand Rapids, MI: William. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1948.
Vos, Johannes G. The Westminster Larger Catechism: A Commentary. G. I. Williamson ed. Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed, 2002.
Waters, Guy Prentiss and J. Nicholas Reid and John R. Muether, eds. Covenant Theology: Biblical, Theological, and Historical Perspectives. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2020.
Williamson, G. I. The Westminster Confession of Faith: for Study Classes. 2nd Edition. Philadelphia, PA: Presbyterian and Reformed, 1964.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
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