Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
It was on the 21st of January, 1525, that a dozen disillusioned men trudged through the snow near the city of Zurich, Switzerland to a dwelling where they could consult together in private. These men were known amongst themselves as the Swiss Brethren, or by their enemies, as the Anabaptists (“ana” = again + “baptist” = baptized). Central in this group of zealous young reformers were Conrad Grebel (1498-1526), Felix Manz (1498-1527), and Georg Blaurock (1492-1529). Each had recently participated in a heated public disputation with the renowned Swiss Reformer Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) concerning the biblical basis of infant baptism. The city council of Zurich had declared Zwingli the victor, hence the men would have to either change their views on the matter, flee the city, or suffer the consequences. After discussing their options, they chose the latter—to suffer for the sake of their convictions. That night they boldly separated from the main stream of the Protestant Reformation by re-baptizing themselves as adult believers. William Estep describes the scene in this way,
After prayer, Georg of the House of Jacob stood up and strongly urged Conrad Grebel for God’s sake to baptize him with the true Christian baptism upon his faith and knowledge. And when he knelt down and with such a request and desire, Conrad baptized him, since at that time there was no ordained minister to perform such work. Following their re-baptism they vigorously began to preach and teach about their new found beliefs.
William Estep, The Anabaptist Story
The Anabaptist message spread rapidly to Germany, Austria, and the Netherlands resulting in a growing number of new congregations. Since the connection between the organized church and the civil government (i.e. the Magistrates) was very strong, any dissenters on theological grounds were quickly apprehended and sometimes even persecuted by the local authorities. Within a few short years, Conrad Grebel had died in prison (1526), Felix Manz had been arrested and sentenced to death by drowning (1527; his enemies caustically referred to this as his “third baptism”), and Georg Blaurock had been burned at the stake as a heretic (1529). Amazingly, Protestants had begun to persecute fellow Protestants! Swift martyrdom would become the norm for the Anabaptists for the next several centuries. In addition, many of the Magisterial Reformers began to forcefully speak out against the Anabaptists. Timothy George notes,
Heinrich Bullinger, for instance, called them “devilish enemies and destroyers of the church of God.” Luther’s preferred term was Schwarmer, which recalls the uncontrollable buzzing of bees around a hive, and which the German reformer applied indiscriminately to a wide host of adversaries. Calvin’s epithets were no less pejorative: “fanatics,” “deluded,” “scatter-brains,” “asses,” “scoundrels,” “mad dogs.” Interpreting the radicals in terms of dissent and nonconformity has skewed efforts to understand their own spiritual motivation.
Timothy George, Theology of the Reformers, 2nd edition, 267-268
God, however, in the midst of the persecution would raise up many courageous spokesmen to replace those who had suffered martyrdom for their faith. One such leader would be—the peaceable and articulate Dutchman, Menno Simons.
Menno Simons (1496-1561) was born to a peasant family in the Friesland region of northern Holland. At twenty-eight years of age he became a Roman Catholic Priest in the village church at Pingjum, Friesland. While serving as priest a nagging question developed in his mind regarding the doctrine of transubstantiation (that belief that the bread and the wine actually become the body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ). As a result, he began to have doubts as to the validity of the miracle of the Mass.
My reader, I write to you the truth in Christ and lie not. In the year 1524, being then in my twenty-eighth year, I undertook the duties of a priest in my father’s village, called Pingjum, in Friesland. Two other persons of about my age, also officiated in the same station. The one was my pastor, and was well learned in part; the other succeeded me; both had read the scriptures partially; but I had not touched them during my life, for I feared, if I should read them they would mislead me. Behold! such a stupid preacher was I, for nearly two years. In the first year thereafter a thought occurred to me, as often as I handled the bread and wine in the mass, that they were not the flesh and blood of the Lord. I thought that it was the suggestion of the devil, that he might lead me off from my faith. I confessed it often—sighed and prayed, yet I could not be freed from this thought.
Complete Works of Menno Simons, 668
Menno’s apprehension over the issue forced him to turn to the Bible. He searched for texts that would convincingly prove the doctrine of transubstantiation, but he was not satisfied with the explanations that he read and heard. Finally, he concluded that such doctrines were the fabrication of the Church and promoted idolatry. He wrote following his conversion these words of personal chastening,
Yes, I have said to a weak, perishing creature that came forth from the earth, that was broken in a mill, that was baked by the fire, that was chewed by my teeth and digested by my stomach, namely, to a mouthful of bread, Thou hast saved me…O God, thus have I, a miserable sinner, toyed with the harlot of Babylon for many years.
Complete Works of Menno Simons, 76
Another doctrine which came under Menno’s scrutiny was the practice of infant baptism. In 1531 a Dutch Anabaptist, Sicke Snijder, was beheaded for being “re-baptized.” This shocking event caused Menno to rethink the whole issue of baptism and to question what practices were truly biblical. Menno had been taught in Roman Catholic theology that infants are born with original sin which must be covered by grace through the sacrament of infant baptism (ie: ex opere operato = the giving of grace is “done in the doing”). The sacrament, when administered by a Roman Catholic Priest, would confer upon the infant sufficient grace that if the baby should die it would avoid Limbus Infantum and reside in Purgatory or Heaven. As the baby grew into an adult that person’s faithful participation in the Church would result in the forgiveness of sins and the accrual of enough grace to enter Purgatory or Heaven. The Anabaptists completely rejected Roman Catholic sacramentalism as unscriptural, and thereby infant baptism as practiced in the Roman Catholic Church.
As a side note, it should be acknowledged that many other Protestants also reject the Roman Catholic sacramental system of baptism. Presbyterian and Reformed churches, for example, base infant baptism upon the Old Testament covenantal promises to parents (Deuteronomy 7:6-9). This promise is realized in the practice of circumcision (Genesis 17:7-14) and its clear connection with New Testament baptism (Acts 2:39; Colossians 2:11-12). Reformed believers reason that baptism in and of itself does not confer any grace–it is a sign and a seal of that grace. Baptism emphasizes God’s covenantal promises to the believing parents and identifies their baptized child as a member of God’s covenant community (i.e. the Church). Baptism, thereby, becomes an impetus for faithful Christian parents to evangelize and disciple their “covenant children” whom God has graciously given to them. It is also a significant reminder for baptized individuals (no matter what age they may be) to live up to the promises that God has placed upon their life.
Even with these doctrinal changes Menno remained a Roman Catholic Priest. He characterized his life at that time as “full of gambling and drinking.” However, in April 1535 three hundred armed Anabaptist believers overthrew the Old Cloister near Bolsward in Northern Holland. For eight days they withstood the assault of troops loyal to the Roman Catholic Church. However, they were utterly defeated and mercilessly slaughtered. Among these radical Anabaptists were several whom Menno had taught in his own congregation, and even more disturbingly—the brother of Menno, Peter Simons. Peter’s death had a profound effect upon Menno. This event, and the earlier debacle at Munster, Germany, where several thousand revolutionary Anabaptists where killed by both Lutherans and Roman Catholics alike, caused Menno to develop his firm opposition to warfare in every situation. He became an ardent and persuasive pacifist who repudiated taking up arms.
After this had transpired, the blood of these people, although mislead fell…hot on my heart…I reflected upon my unclean, carnal life, also the hypocritical doctrine and idolatry which I still practiced daily in appearance of godliness, but without relish. I saw that these zealous children, although in error, willingly gave their lives and their estates for their doctrine and faith. And I was one of those who had disclosed to some of them the abominations of the papal system. But I myself…acknowledged abominations simply in order that I might enjoy physical comfort and escape the cross of Christ.
Compete Works of Menno Simons, 670-671
He confessed his own hypocrisy, and finally his conversion came about in 1535 at age thirty-nine. He writes of this decisive experience,
My heart trembled within me. I prayed to God with the sighs and tears that He would give to me, a sorrowing sinner, the gift of His grace, create in me a clean heart, and graciously through the merits of the crimson blood of Christ forgive my unclean walk and frivolous easy life and bestow on me wisdom, Spirit, courage, and a manly spirit so that I might preach His exalted and adorable name and holy Word in purity.
Complete Works of Menno Simons, 671
On January 30, 1536, Menno preached his final sermon as a Roman Catholic Priest and formally sought out the fellowship of “peaceful” Anabaptists. Later that year, he identified with the small group led by Obbe Philips (1500-1568) where he was first baptized (1536), and then ordained (1537). When Obbe Philips stepped-back from his role as leader, due to his internal conflict over the death of so many of his followers, Menno stepped-up and filled the void along with Obbe’s younger brother Dirk Philips (1502-1568). This fledgling group grew in prominence so that most Anabaptists, in time, became known as Mennonites.
As successive Anabaptist leaders met their deaths by martyrdom, Menno survived them all and enjoyed a fruitful twenty-five year ministry throughout the Netherlands and Northern Germany. He often preached his gospel in small “home churches” and fled the authorities who sought to imprison him. His wife and children suffered great poverty from the rigors of living on the road. At one point the Emperor, Charles 5th, offered a reward of one hundred gold guilders for his capture. Nevertheless, Menno eluded every potential “Judas” and continued to preach, teach, and write. His most significant and systematic work was The Foundation of Christian Knowledge, which was published in 1539. His last years were spent in relative peace at Holstein; he died in his own bed at Wustenfelde, near Lubeck, in northern Germany and was buried in his garden.
Historically, Mennonite beliefs could be summarized in the following way: (a) the community of believers is stressed (so that marriage only among Anabaptist believers is encouraged); (b) each disciple commits themselves to a new way of life in Christ (which is sealed through adult baptism); (c) baptism is only offered to adult believers (usually by pouring); (d) foot-washing is often times practiced along with the Lord’s Supper (which is observed twice a year); (e) each individual and family is to withdraw from the secular world (so that participation in politics, higher learning, and the military is discouraged); (f) Scripture is taken literally and non-scriptural terms are generally not used (ie: the Trinity; (g) although it is affirmed as the teaching of the Bible the term is not used); (h) dogmatic theology is rejected (instead, personal experience is emphasized); (i) pacifism is encouraged (rather than nationalism, which leads to militarism); (j) each congregation is considered to be a “free” church (instead of having a hierarchical form of church government); (k) the “ban” (i.e shunning) is placed on those who have rejected the moral code of the church; (l) an imminent return of Jesus Christ is expected. Dress for men and women is to be modest, plain, and practical, so that clothing covers the majority of a person’s body. The modern-day proponents of Anabaptist theology are the following groups: the Mennonites, the Hutterites, the Amish, the Moravians, some Baptists, and the German Pietists.
Resources for Further Study:
Bainton, Roland H. The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Boston, MA: The Beacon Press, 1952.
Broderick, Robert C. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Revised Edition. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1987.
Calvin, John. Treatises Against the Anabaptists and Against the Libertines. Benjamin W. Farley, ed. and trans. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 1982.
Douglas, J. D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
- “Anabaptists,” by Robert C. Clouse
- “Baptists,” by Ernest F. Clipsham
- “Blaurock, Georg,” by Robert D. Linder
- “Grebel, Conrad,” by Peter Toon
- “Hutterites,” by Ian Sellers
- “John of Leyden,” by Dirk Jellema
- “Manz, Felix,” by J. G. G. Norman
- “Mennonites,” by J. C. Wenger
- “Menno Simons,” by Dirk Jellema
- “Philips, Dirk,” by Kenneth R. Davis
- “Philips, Obbe,” by J. G. G. Norman
- “Radical Reformation,” by Haddon Willmer
- “Zwingli, Ulrich,” by Robert C. Walton
Douglas, J. D., ed. Who’s Who In Christian History. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.
Dowley, Tim, ed. The History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishers, 1990.
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2001.
- “Baptist Tradition, The,” by E. F. Kevan
- “Grebel, Conrad,” by J. C. Wenger
- “Hubmaier, Balthasar,” by J. C. Wenger
- “Mennonites,” by J. C. Wenger
- “Menno Simons,” by J. C. Wenger
- “Melchorites,” by J. C. Wenger
- “Radical Reformation,” by J. D. Weaver
- “Zwickau Prophets,” by J. D. Weaver
Estep, William R. The Anabaptist Story. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman’s Publishing Company, 1975.
George, Timothy. Theology of the Reformers. Revised Edition. Nashville, TN: B&H Publishing Group, 2013.
Hillerbrand, Hans J., ed. The Protestant Reformation. New York, NY: Harper and Row Publishers, 1968.
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Mead, Frank S. Handbook of Denominations. 8th Edition. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1985.
Verduin, Leonard. The Reformers and Their Stepchildren. Grand Rapids, MI: WilliamB. Eerdman’s Publishing Company, 1964.
Wenger, John Christian, ed. The Complete Works of Menno Simons. Leonard Verduin, trans. Scottsdale, PA: Mennonite Publishing House, 1956.
Woodbridge, John D., ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church, Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
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