Tag: Persecution in the Early Church

Ten Waves of Persecution by the Romans Against the Christians (AD 64-313)

January 15, 2025 / marcusserven / 0 Comments

“For they did not love the present world but the one who died on our behalf and was raised by God for our sakes.” Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Why did the Romans persecute the Christians? At first the Romans merely saw the Christians as a subset of Judaism and therefore they were not persecuted by the Romans. After the dispersion of Jews from Israel and at the conclusion of the Roman-Jewish War (AD 66-74), Christians no longer enjoyed this legal protection and they became a target of the state. Their refusal to offer worship to Caesar earned them the title of “Atheists” since they would not acknowledge that Caesar was “Lord.” Moreover, their practice of eating the “body” and drinking the “blood” of Christ in the Lord’s Supper became an offense to the Romans. They falsely accused Christians of “cannibalism.” And so, what exactly was the policy of the Roman government? Consider this letter of inquiry from the Roman provincial governor of Bithynia, Pliny the Younger (AD 62-c.113) who sought advice from the Roman Emperor Trajan on how to treat Christians. He asks,

It is my rule, Sire, to refer to you in matters where I am uncertain. For who can better direct my hesitation or instruct my ignorance? I was never present at any trial of Christians; therefore I do not know what are the customary penalties or investigations, and what limits are observed…this is the course that I adopted in the case of those brought before me as Christians. I ask them if they are Christians. If they admit it I repeat the question a second and a third time, threatening capital punishment; if they persist I sentence them to death. For I do not doubt that, whatever kind of crime it may be to which they have confessed, their pertinacity and inflexible obstinacy should certainly be punished. There were others who displayed a like madness and who I reserved to be sent to Rome, since they were Roman citizens…An anonymous pamphlet was issued, containing many names. All who denied that they were or had been Christians I considered should be discharged, because they called upon the gods at my dictation and did reverence, with incense and wine, to your image which I had ordered to be brought forward for this purpose, together with the statues of the deities; and especially because they cursed Christ, a thing which, it is said genuine Christians cannot be induced to do.

— Pliny the Younger, Epistolae ad Trajan X.96; cited in Bettenson and Maunder, eds., Documents of the Christian Church, 3-4

The Emperor replied with the following advice:

You have adopted the proper course, my dear Pliny, in examining into the cases of those who have been denounced to you as Christians, for no hard and fast rule can be laid down to meet a question of such wide extent. The Christians are not to be hunted out; if they are brought before you and the offense is proved, they are to be punished, but with this reservation—that if any one denies that he is a Christian and makes it clear that he is not, by offering prayers to our deities, then he is to be pardoned because of his recantation, however suspicious his past conduct may have been. But pamphlets published anonymously must not carry any weight whatever, no matter what the charge may be, for they are not only a precedent of the very worst type, but they are not in consonance with the spirit of our age.

— Trajan to Pliny, Epistolae ad Trajan X.97; cited in Bettenson and Maunder, eds,, Documents of the Christian Church, 5

This revealing correspondence demonstrates how the Romans gave Christians an opportunity to recant from their worship of Jesus Christ, by acknowledging “Caesar is Lord.” If they did not then they would suffer the consequences. As would be expected, many Christians refused to recant and thereby they went to their deaths. Such a rejection of Jesus Christ was unthinkable to them. Hence, the persecution and martyrdom of Christians increased under Roman rule.

There were, however, others within the church who under pressure rejected Jesus Christ in order to spare their own lives. This situation produced an awkward crisis within the Christian church, and that was how to relate those who had given way to the Romans. Should those who denied the faith be readmitted to the church once the threat of persecution had diminished, or not? Over time three basic responses emerged: (1) to graciously readmit all of those who had previously rejected Jesus Christ; (2) to only readmit those who had rejected Jesus Christ upon their private and public repentance; or (3) to steadfastly refuse to readmit those who had previously rejected Jesus Christ since they could not be trusted. This crisis became a struggle between those who argued for a gracious response and those who argued for maintaining the purity of the church.

Why were Christians willing to endure persecution and martyrdom? Here are four reasons based on Scripture as to why Christians were willing to go to their deaths for the sake of Jesus Christ:

They had personally experienced a changed life and could not conceive of living as they had formerly lived. (See: “For me to live is Christ and to die is gain” Phil. 1:21)
They had witnessed the transformation of the lives of others who formed the true church, of which they were a part. (See: “For just the body is one and has many members, and all the members of the body though many, are one body, so it is with Christ. For in one Spirit we were all baptized into one body—Jews or Greeks, slaves or free—and all were made to drink of one Spirit.” 1 Cor. 12:12-13 And see: “Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed away; behold the new has come.” 2 Cor. 5:17)
They firmly believed that if they through death became “absent from the body,” they would surely be “present with the Lord.” (See: “So we are always of good courage. We know that while we are at home in the body we are away from the Lord, for we walk by faith, not by sight. Yes, we are of good courage, and we would rather be away from the body and at home with the Lord. So whether we are at home or away, we make it our aim to please him.” 2 Cor. 5:6-9)
They resolutely believed that the Father had demonstrated His power through the birth, life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. Hence, they trusted they too would be resurrected unto life following their death. (See: Jesus said, “I am the resurrection and the life. Whoever believes in me, though he die, yet shall he live…” John 11:25)

Hence, we see that Christians have a foundation of trust in God that allows them to be persecuted and martyred. Nowhere in the Bible are Christians encouraged to seek after persecution and martyrdom—in some sort of self-fulfilling prophecy. Yet, they have been given spiritual resources that enable them to face it with courage.

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Listed below are the “Ten Waves of Persecution” which were directed against Christians by the Romans. Note—many thousands of unnamed Christians died at the hands of the Romans. Only those notable individuals whose suffering and martyrdom were preserved in ancient literature are listed here. Many lesser known Christians suffered confiscation of their property, arrest, trial, imprisonment, torture, and death. They suffered for Jesus’ sake (Matt. 5:10-12).

The First Persecution, under Nero, AD 64-68 – Peter, Paul, Erastus, Aristarchus, Trophimus, Barsabas, Ananias the bishop of Damascus, and 100’s of other Christians in Rome are martyred. Some were covered in pitch and set afire in the Emperor’s garden. Even the most stoic Roman citizens were horrified by this level of barbarous cruelty.

The Second Persecution, under Domitian, AD c.90-96 – Simeon the bishop of Jerusalem, Clement of Rome, Dionysius the Areopogite, Nicodemus, and Timothy are martyred. The Apostle John after being boiled in oil was exiled to the island of Patmos in the Aegean Sea.

The Third Persecution, under Trajan, AD 98-117 – Ignatius the bishop of Antioch, Alexander the bishop of Rome, Symeon, Zozimus, and Rufus are martyred. Trajan’s policy was that Christians were to be executed when found, but not to be sought out. Anonymous sources were to be rejected as unreliable and unsound.

The Fourth Persecution, under Hadrian, AD 117-138 – Persecution continued along the lines of Trajan, but these purges were sporatic; Telesphorus the bishop of Rome was martyred.

The Fifth Persecution, under Marcus Aurelius, AD 161-180 – Germanicus, Polycarp the bishop of Smyrna, Justin Martyr, Pothinus the bishop of Lyon, and Blandina are martyred. Christians are unfairly blamed for natural disasters and other calamities.

Following the murderous carnage by the beasts, their handlers drive them back into their cages leaving the mangled bodies of the Christians in the arena

The Sixth Persecution, under Septimus Severus, AD 202-211 – Victor the bishop of Rome, Leonidas, Irenaeus the bishop of Lyon, Asclepiades the bishop of Antioch, Perpetua and Felicitus are martyred.

The Seventh Persecution, under Maximinus the Tracian, AD 235-236 – Pontianus the bishop of Rome, Pammachius and Quiritus both who served as Roman Senators, Ursula and Hippolitus are martyred.

The Eighth Persecution, under Decius, AD 249-251 – Fabianus the bishop of Rome, Alexander of Jerusalem, Nichomachus, Denisa, Julian, Trypho, Respicius, Agatha, Cyril the bishop of Gortyna, Babylas the bishop of Antioch, and Theodora are martyred. Origen the celebrated presbyter of Alexandria was tortured and imprisoned.

The Ninth Persecution, under Valerian, AD 257-260 – Rufina, Secunda, Stephen the bishop of Rome, Sixtus the bishop of Rome, Cyprian the bishop of Carthage was exiled and then later martyred, and Fructuosis bishop of Tarragon are martyred.

The Persecution of Christians by Diocletian

The Tenth Persecution, under Diocletian, AD 303-311 – the destruction of churches and the burning of Christian books, 1000’s of Christians were expelled from their homes and many were imprisoned, Sebastian, Romanus, Dorotheus, three sisters Agrape, Chionia, and Irene in Greece, Mauritius, and Alban are martyred.

Christian writers throughout the centuries of the Early Church responded to the persecution of Christians by the Romans by challenging their reasons and arguments. One of the most highly skilled defenders of Christianity was Tertullian (AD c.160-c.220). He chided the Romans in his book Apologia with these scathing words: “If the River Tiber reaches the walls, if the River Nile does not rise to the fields, if the sky does not move or if the earth does, if there is a famine, if there is a plague, the cry is at once: ‘The Christians to the lion!’ What, all of them to one lion?” Clearly, blaming Christians for all of the troubles experienced by the Romans was foolish and ridiculous. Tertullian pointed this out with bold and decisive logic. This line of reasoning, however, did not stop all forms of persecution and martyrdom. It was only in the ever-changing Roman political scene that this brutal policy finally came to an end.

In AD 313 the Edict of Milan finally brought an official end all of the persecution. J. D. Douglas notes, “Constantine and Licinius, meeting at Milan in January 313, redressed a two-century-old policy of the Roman government towards the Christian Church, so that Christians not only were free to worship as they wished, but were to receive compensation and return of confiscated property—in exchange for the divine favor of the state in its precarious hour.” (J. D. Douglas, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 659) In God’s providence the rising threats against the Roman Empire from the barbarians in the north and the east proved to be the driving force behind a change in policy. Rome needed to focus on external threats more than on internal threats.

Moreover, it must be noted that Constantine himself appeared to become a Christian in AD 312 at the battle of Milvian Bridge just outside of Rome. After being instructed by the Lord in a dream, he adopted the sign of the labarum (Chi-Rho = Christ) for all of his soldiers. They fought under this banner and won a decisive victory. Thus any ongoing persecution against Christians would have been contrary to Constantine’s own faith. In the end, Jesus Christ received the glory as His spiritual kingdom continued to spread to every corner of the earth (See: Ps. 72:8; Matt. 16:18; Heb. 12:28-29).

Here are four resources that helped me to compile this article–all of them are winners!

Sources of Information:

Bettenson, Henry and Chris Maunder, eds. Documents of the Christian Church. Fourth Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.

Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

“Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
“Constantine the Great” by David F. Wright
“Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
“Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
“Milan, Edict of” by J. D. Douglas
“Persecution” by David F. Wells
“Pliny’s Letter to Trajan” by Peter Toon
“Rome” by Clyde Curry Smith

Eusebius Pamphilus. The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus. Grand Rapids, MI: Reprint, Baker Book House, 1992.

Foxe, Rev. John (1516-1587), Foxe’s Book of Martyrs, or formally known as Actes and Monumentes, (ed.) William Byron Forbrush, D.D., Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, originally published in English AD 1563, current copyright 1967.

Holmes, Michael W., ed. and trans. The Apostolic Fathers in English. Third Edition; after the earlier version of J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Richardson, Cyril C., ed. and trans. Early Christian Fathers. Vol. 1 in “The Library of Christian Classics.” Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1953.

Schaaf, Philip. History of the Christian Church. Volume 2. Fifth Edition. Originally published in 1858. Reprint, Peabody, MA: Hendricksen Publishers, 1996.

Walton, Robert C., Chronological & Background Charts of Church History, Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1986.

Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Bloomington, IN: Warhorn Media, Reprint, 2014.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

Ignatius of Antioch: Courageous Martyr of the Early Church

October 21, 2024 / marcusserven

“Indeed, all who desire to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will be persecuted.” 2 Tim. 3:12

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Ignatius (AD c.35-c.117) served the Lord as the bishop of Antioch in Syria. Not much is known of his early life. There is an ancient but unprovable tradition, however, that Ignatius was the child whom Jesus took up into his arms and said, “Truly, I say to you, unless you turn and become like children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven. Whoever humbles himself like this child is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven” (cf. Matt. 18:3-4). As a young Christian, Ignatius was discipled by the Apostle John through extensive correspondence. Because of this he quickly matured in his understanding of Christianity and became a highly capable church leader.

The church at Antioch of Syria became known as the first place where the disciples of Jesus were identified as “Christians” (Acts 11:26). It was also a significant launching place for Christian missionary endeavors. Paul and Barnabas were sent out by the church of Antioch on multiple missionary trips (Acts 13:1-3). When large numbers of Gentiles were converted, the church in Antioch welcomed them (Acts 15:30-32). Ignatius served as its bishop (Gk. episkopos), alongside of a council of elders (Gk. presbyterion), and the deacons (Gk. diakonia). As the bishop his spiritual influence appears to have far exceeded Antioch, so much so that he was recognized as a spiritual leader throughout the region of Syria and Asia Minor.

The ruins of the Antiochus Gate in Antioch of Syria. Perhaps, Paul and Barnabas walked through this gate at the beginning of their missionary journeys!

Ignatius is best known for seven letters that he wrote during the last year of his life. These letters are preserved in the writings of the “Apostolic Fathers” and they document his pending martyrdom as he was taken to Rome as a captive. In them Ignatius distinguished himself by writing against the Docetists who asserted that Jesus only appeared to have a real birth, death, and bodily resurrection. In essence, they denied the incarnation of Jesus Christ. Ignatius strongly argued that the Docetists (Gk: dokeo = to seem, to appear) were in error about Jesus Christ. He thoughtfully wrote,

Be deaf, therefore, whenever anyone speaks to you apart from Jesus Christ, who was of the family of David, who was the son of Mary; who really was born, who both ate and drank; who really was persecuted under Pontius Pilate, who really was crucified and died while those in heaven and on earth and under the earth looked on; who, moreover, really was raised from the dead when his Father raised him up. In the same way his Father will likewise also raise up in Christ Jesus us who believe in him. Apart from him we have no true life.

— “Ignatius to the Trallians” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 9

Hence, even at this early stage in the history of the Christian church, we see a fully formed doctrine of the humanity of Jesus Christ. Jesus did not just to appear to be a man, but he actually was a man. Over time, this contentious debate was finally resolved at the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) where Jesus Christ was acknowledged to be fully man and fully God at the same time, with the two natures united in one person (i.e. the hypostatic union).

As a determined apologist of Christian orthodoxy Ignatius demonstrated his zeal for defending the truth against all heretical teaching (Gk. hairesis = a choice, destructive opinion, sect or schismatic faction). Therefore, he also argued against the Ebionites who demanded the keeping of Jewish regulations as a way of salvation. Ignatius emphatically noted, “It is utterly absurd to profess Jesus Christ and to practice Judaism. For Christianity did not believe in Judaism, but Judaism in Christianity, in which every tongue believed and was brought together to God” (Ignatius to the Magnesians, Art. 10). In this, Ignatius mirrors the teaching of the Apostle Paul who wrote to the Colossian church, “Therefore let no one pass judgment on you in questions of food and drink, or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath. These are a shadow of the things to come, but the substance belongs to Christ” (Col. 2:16-17). Clearly, the Apostles’ doctrine was that the work of Jesus Christ on the cross was completely sufficient to justify and cleanse the sinner; nothing else was needed. Ignatius held to this same belief.

He also claimed to possess special gifts from the Holy Spirit by writing that he was “not lacking in any spiritual gift” (Ignatius to the Smynaeans, in the Salutation). Presumably, then, he prophesied, spoke in and interpreted “tongues” (Gk. glossolalia), and performed healings. As a result, some modern-day Pentecostals have claimed Ignatius as an early advocate of the “Spirit-filled” life. It is dubious, however, to make this claim when it is based only on one slender text (cited above). It is more likely that he manifested various spiritual gifts (i.e. the sign gifts), but that these ceased to exist as the Apostolic Age came to an end. See the Apostle Paul’s statement for context, “As for prophecies, they will pass away; as for tongues they will cease; as for knowledge, it will pass away. For we know in part and we prophesy in part, but when the perfect comes [i.e. the New Testament Scriptures], the partial will pass away” (1 Cor. 13:8-10).

In his seven letters Ignatius quoted from three Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) and several of the New Testament Epistles (like the example above from Romans). This fact shows how the NT Canon was already widely recognized at the end of the Apostolic Age.

Ignatius is best known by Christians throughout the centuries as a martyr (Gk. marturion = a witness, testimony, evidence). On his way to Rome to suffer martyrdom under armed guard he wrote letters to the Christians in the cities through which he passed (Philadelphia and Smyrna), to cities that sent out delegations to meet him (Ephesus, Tralles, and Magnesia), to Rome (sent ahead of his arrival), and finally to Polycarp (the bishop of Smyrna). These seven letters contain a strong and passionate declaration of the gospel of Jesus Christ; urging his fellow Christians to “stand firm” and to seek lives of holiness. Note this entry To the Ephesians on the subject of humility. He writes,

I am not commanding you, as though I were someone important. For even though I am in chains for the sake of the Name, I have not yet been perfected in Jesus Christ. For now I am only beginning to be a disciple, and I speak to you as my fellow students. For I need to be trained by you in faith, instruction, endurance, and patience. But since love does not allow me to be silent concerning you, I have therefore taken the initiative to encourage you, so that you may run together in harmony with the mind of God. For Jesus Christ, our inseparable life, is the mind of the Father, just as the bishops appointed throughout the world are in the mind of Christ.

— “Ignatius to the Ephesians” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 3

These letters show that the episcopal form of church government was beginning to take a strong hold in Syria and Asia Minor as the preferred structure of ecclesiastical authority. It is telling that each one of the major churches that Ignatius sent letters to were ruled over by a bishop (Gk: episkopos). Concerning the structure of church government—bishops, presbyters, and deacons—Ignatius exhorts,

Flee from division as the beginning of evils. You must all follow the bishop as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and follow the council of presbyters as you would the apostles; respect the deacons as the commandment of God. Let no one do anything that has to do with the church without the bishop. Only that Eucharist which is under the authority of the bishop (or whomever he himself designates) is to be considered valid. Wherever the bishop appears, there let the congregation be; just as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the catholic church. It is not permissible either to baptize or to hold a love feast without the bishop. But whatever he approves is also pleasing to God, in order that everything you do may be trustworthy and valid.

— “Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 8

In addition, it was Ignatius who first used the word “catholic” (i.e., “universal”) to describe the interrelationship between the churches scattered throughout the Roman world (See: Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Art. 8). In this sense, Ignatius emphasized the fact that the churches were not completely independent from one another, but they were inter-connected. The best evidence for this connection between them was the way in which all of the churches adhered to the ruling of the Jerusalem Council regarding the inclusion of Gentiles into the church (Acts 15:1-21).

Moreover, Ignatius seems convinced that the return of Jesus Christ was imminent. Given the rising persecution against the disciples of Jesus Christ, he can certainly not be faulted for this expectation and hope. He boldly writes,

These are the last times. Therefore let us be reverent, let us fear the patience of God, lest it become a judgment against us. For let us either fear the wrath to come or love the grace which is present, one of the two; only let us be found in Christ Jesus, which leads to true life. Let nothing appeal to you apart from him, in whom I carry around these chains (my spiritual pearls!), by which I hope, through your prayers, to rise again. May I always share in them, in order that I might be found in the company of the Christians of Ephesus who have always been in agreement with the apostles, by the power of Jesus Christ.

— “Ignatius to the Ephesians” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 11

Even though Jesus Christ did not return within the life of Ignatius, his strong faith and resilient attitude prevailed in the end. Ignatius expected to be in the presence of his Lord, Jesus Christ, immediately following his death. This was not a vain hope, but one built upon the promise of Jesus—“Let not your hearts be troubled. Believe in God, believe also in me. In my Father’s house are many rooms…I will come again and will take you to myself, that where I am you may be also” (John 14:1-3).

When the Roman Emperor Trajan, who ruled from AD 98-117, visited Antioch he desired to see its most famous citizen, Ignatius. This was not a friendly visit and the Emperor Trajan greeted him in the following manner:

Trajan: “There you are, wicked devil, deceiver of men!”

Ignatius: “‘Not an evil spirit,’ but I have Jesus in my heart.”

Trajan: “Jesus Christ within you? Do you mean him who was crucified by Pontius Pilate?”

Ignatius: “Yes, he was crucified for my sins.”

Without a trial of any kind the heartless Emperor Trajan ordered that Ignatius be taken to Rome and be thrown to the wild beasts. He was to be, “butchered to make a Roman holiday.” It was on his way to Rome that Ignatius penned his famous letters to individual churches and to Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna. Knowing that he would soon be martyred, Ignatius wrote the following words,

I am writing to all the churches and am insisting to everyone that I die for God of my own free will—unless you hinder me. I implore you: do not be unseasonably kind to me. Let me be food for the wild beasts, through whom I can reach God. I am God’s wheat, and I am being ground by the teeth of wild beasts, so that I may prove to be pure bread. Better yet, coax the wild beasts, so that they may become my tomb and leave nothing of my body behind, lest I become a burden to anyone once I have fallen asleep. Then I will truly be a disciple of Jesus Christ, when the world will no longer see my body. Pray to the Lord on my behalf, so that through these instruments I may prove to be a sacrifice to God. I do not give you orders like Peter and Paul: they were apostles, I am a convict; they were free, but I am even now still a slave. But if I suffer, I will be a freedman of Jesus Christ and will rise up free in him. In the meantime, as a prisoner I am learning to desire nothing.

— “Ignatius to the Romans” in the Apostolic Fathers, Art. 4

A visitor to the Colosseum once asked, “Are there any relics still to be obtained?” The guide replied, “Gather the dust from the floor of the Colosseum; it is all the martyrs.”

Many weeks later when Ignatius finally arrived in Rome, the Emperor Trajan sentenced him to death. Ignatius replied by looking up to heaven and uttering these words, “I thank thee, O Lord, that thou hast vouchsafed thus to honor me” and later while facing the lions he stated, “I am God’s grain, to be ground between the teeth of wild beasts, so that I may become a holy loaf for the Lord.” Soon after this all that was left of Ignatius was a few gnawed bones. When his friends recovered his remains they knew that Ignatius was “with Christ, which is far better” (Phil. 1:23). One hundred and twenty years later, Tertullian (AD c.160-220), the Latin Church Father, rightly affirmed, “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.” The testimony of Ignatius, and many other martyrs of the Early Church, serve as sober reminders to modern-day Christians that the secular authorities can turn against the members of Christ’s Church. The Apostle Paul emphatically noted, “Indeed, all who desire to live a godly life in Christ Jesus will be persecuted” (2 Tim. 3:12). Let us, then, be watchful, and let us prepare ourselves for what trials and tribulations may come in the providential will of God.

These three books first introduced me to the treasures of Ignatius–all are winners!

Sources for Further Study:

Abott-Smith, G. A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament. Third Edition. Edinburgh, Scotland, T. & T. Clark, 1981.

Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.

Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

“Antioch (Syrian)” by James M. Houston
“Apostolic Fathers” by David F. Wright
“Apostolic Succession” by R. E. Nixon
“Bishop” by Peter Toon
“Chalcedon, Definition of” by G. T. D. Angel
“Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
“Deacon” by J. W. Charley
“Docetism” by G. W. Grogan
“Ebonites” by H. L. Ellison
“Eusebius of Caesarea” by J. G. G. Norman
“Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
“Ignatius” by David F. Wright
“Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
“Persecution” by David F. Wells
“Polycarp” by David F. Wright
“Presbyter” by W. Stanford Reid
“Rome” by Clyde Curry Smith
“Tertullian” by David F. Wright

Dowley, Tim, ed. The Lion Handbook of the History of Christianity. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishing, 1990.

Eusebius Pamphilus. The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus. Grand Rapids, MI: Reprint, Baker Book House, 1992.

Holmes, Michael W., ed. and trans. The Apostolic Fathers in English. Third Edition; after the earlier version of J. B. Lightfoot and J. R. Harmer. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.

Leith, John H., ed. Creeds of the Churches. Third Edition. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1982.

Richardson, Cyril C. Early Christian Fathers. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1970.