“Justification stands at the beginning of the Christian life, at the moment we truly believe in Christ. At that instant, God reckons to us the righteousness of Christ, and we are declared just. Martin Luther expressed this concept with the phrase simil justus et peccator. Those four Latin words mean that we are, at the same time, both righteous and sinful. How can that be? On the surface, it sounds like a contradiction, doesn’t it? But we are indeed just by virtue of the justness or the righteousness of Christ, which is given to us. God imputes the righteousness of Jesus to you. That’s the basis of your justification. But, in and of yourself, you remain a sinner. That’s the whole point of the Protestant doctrine of justification. God doesn’t wait for us to be worthy of salvation. He doesn’t wait for us to become holy before we’re counted as righteous. ‘While we were still sinners, Christ died for us’ (Rom. 5:8).” (Sproul, Growing in Holiness: Understanding God’s Role and Yours, 76-77)
“Thy Kingdom come, Thy will be done, on earth as it is in Heaven” Matt. 6:10
Later in life when Martin Bucer (1491-1551) served as the Regius Professor of Divinity at Cambridge University, he wrote, perhaps, his greatest work De Regno Christi which is translated “The Kingdom of Christ” (1550). This significant book shaped theological and political thought for many centuries in Reformation-minded countries by setting forth a blueprint for Christian society. It was dedicated to the young English Monarch, King Edward VI.
Bucer described the Kingdom of God in the following manner,
Dr. Martin Bucer, Protestant Reformer of Strasbourg
“We read that this Kingdom is called “the Kingdom of God” (Matt. 6:33), “the Kingdom of the beloved Son of God” (Eph. 5:5), and “the Kingdom of Heaven” (Matt. 3:12). Now we know that a kingdom, if it is rightly and properly so called, is said to be the administration of a people or state by which the one person who excels the others in wisdom and every virtue so arranges and obtains whatever is for the well-being of the citizens that nothing at all is lacking to them, in such a way that from earliest childhood everyone is formed and led toward a responsible and happy way of life. Since this is the nature and purpose of any kingdom which can really be called a kingdom, let us consider that the kingdom about which we are reading is called the Kingdom of God. Whatever good properties exist in any human kingdom exist and are found in fuller perfection here, inasmuch as God is above all men, both in the wisdom of his governance and in the benevolence of his will for all mankind. Indeed, since God alone is good, wise, and powerful, only in his Kingdom can those things which ought to be done by royal rule be plainly perceived.”
Bucer, De Regno Christi, 176-177
Here we see the thoughts of a mature Christian man who was thoroughly saturated with the principles of the Word of God. Bucer rightly acknowledges, “Whatever good properties exist in any human kingdom exist and are found in fuller perfection here” (i.e. in the Kingdom of God). Thus, it is beneficial, good, and right for the leaders of the kingdoms of this earth to emulate the King of Kings in their judgements, laws, and societal standards. To do otherwise, invites the judgement and discipline of the Lord (Ps. 2:10-12).
May God give us confidence in the rule of the Lord Jesus Christ during these dark days (Ps. 110:1-7). Those who flagrantly rule over humanity with deception, injustice, and wickedness must ultimately give an account to the King of Kings and Lord of Lords (2 Cor. 5:10). That sobering fact should give all Christians a great sense of assurance. The Kingdom of God will prevail despite all those who oppose it. Jesus plainly states, “I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it” (Matt. 16:18b).
— Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Biographical Source:
Bucer, Martin. “De Regno Christi” in Melancthon and Bucer. Wilhelm Pauck, ed. Francois Wendel, trans. The Library of Christian Classics. Volume XIX. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1969.
Here is a short summary statement of John Calvin’s argument for applying the sign of baptism to the children of Believers:
John Calvin (1509-1564)
“Reason would tell us that baptism is rightly administered to babies. The Lord did not give circumcision long ago without making them (infants) partakers of everything represented by circumcision. He would have been deceiving his people with a sham, if he had reassured them with false signs. The idea is very shocking. He distinctly states that the circumcision of the infant is the seal of covenant promise. If the covenant remains firm and unmoved, this is just as relevant to the children of Christians today as it was to the children of the Jews under the Old Testament…The truth of baptism applies to infants, so why do we deny them the sign? The Lord himself formally admitted infants to his covenant, so what more do we need?”
John Calvin, Institutes of the christian religion, 4:16:5 (Beveridge Edition)
Most Reformed and Presbyterian families embrace Calvin’s way of thinking when it comes to our “Covenant Children.” We understand that God has given each child to the Christian family as a “heritage,” a “reward,” and a “blessing” (Ps. 127:3-5). And, that the sign and seal of the Old Testament–which was circumcision (Gen. 17:7-9; Rom. 4:11)–has now been replaced by baptism in the New Testament (Col. 2:11-12). Standing on the promises of the Covenant of Grace, Christian parents are solemnly tasked by Jesus Christ “to make disciples” of their children by “baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit” (Matt. 28:19). Lastly, they are instructed by the Apostle Paul to “bring them up in the discipline and instruction of the Lord” (Eph. 6:4; Matt. 28:20). This is serious business!
An Infant Baptism at Covenant Family Church in Troy, MO
Therefore, it is imperative that Christian fathers and mothers embrace the promises of God for each one of their children (Ps. 78:1-8). Consider the Apostle Peter’s striking admonition to his fellow Jews on the day of Pentecost, “For the promise is for you and for your children and for all who are far off, everyone whom the Lord our God calls to himself” (Acts 2:39). In other words, those who follow Jesus Christ as His disciples are responsible by faith to entrust the spiritual awakening of their own children to God’s gracious work (John 3:3-5; Titus 3:5-7). We do this by presenting our “Covenant Children” for baptism and by instructing them in the truths of the Gospel as they mature.
Why take the time to study the life and ministry of Martin Luther (1483-1546)? After all he lived around 500 years ago, and surely everything that could be said about him has already been said! In answer to this question it must be stated that, “Yes” a lot has already been said about Martin Luther, but also a lot has been forgotten about the details of his life and the incredible influence he had upon the modern world. It is to Martin Luther that we credit a recovery of the Gospel of grace and a reaffirmation of the core doctrines of the Christian faith. His bold and stubborn proclamation of the Bible’s life-giving message delivered whole nations from religious slavery and opened the door to the progress of religious liberty. His persistence in preaching, teaching, and writing flooded the market with life-changing literature that revolutionized the lives of individuals and led to the formation of entirely new denominations.
In my opinion, Martin Luther deserves first place in the past 500 years in shaping the world in which we now live. He had a greater influence in his own spheres (theology and biblical exposition) than Karl Marx (in politics), Charles Darwin (in science), Sigmund Freud (in psychology), Soren Kierkegaard (in philosophy), Mahatma Gandhi (in spirituality), Reinhold Niebuhr (in theology), and John Maynard Keynes (in economics). He brought forward the key themes of faith, freedom, government, grace, higher education, justification, law, liberty, marriage and family, music, salvation, vocation, and worship. In short, he transformed Germany, the remainder of Europe, North America, and in time the rest of the world. Today, it is a benefit for everyone to know about this unique man and the central beliefs that motivated him to stand firm throughout his life in the midst of so much adversity. Let us, then, reflect on his life and ministry and give thanks to God for raising up such a man!
Martin Luther’s birthplace–Eisleben, Germany
Martin Luther was born on November 10, 1483 and raised in the small German town of Eisleben. His father came from peasant stock, but earned enough money from mining silver that he was able to afford an excellent education for his son. Luther progressed through the academic ranks attending the very best preparatory schools. At age eighteen he began his studies at the University of Erfurt graduating with a Bachelor of Arts in 1502 and a Master of Arts in 1505. His father wanted him to pursue law, but following a narrow brush with death in a violent thunderstorm (he was struck by lightning!), he made a life-changing vow to become an Augustinian monk (age 23). He went on to become a priest in 1507 and studied theology at Wittenberg University. He was awarded a Bachelor of Divinity in 1509 when he was 26 years old.
It was during these years of monastery life (1507-1512) that Luther experienced an intense spiritual struggle where he sought to work out his own salvation by careful observance of monastic rule, personal confession, and the discipline of self-mortification. In many respects, Luther “out-monked” all of the other monks! His health declined due to his tireless devotion to study and self-denial (i.e. lack of food and sleep). Luther describes this period of his life in the following quote,
I was indeed a pious monk and kept the rules of my order so strictly that I can say: if ever a monk gained heaven through monkery, it should have been I. All my monastic brethren who knew me well will testify to this. I would have martyred myself to death with fasting, praying, reading, and other good works had I remained a monk much longer.
Hillerbrand, ed. The Reformation: A Narrative History, 24
Martin Luther as a young Monk
Fortunately, the vicar general of his order, Johann von Staupitz, encouraged him to reconsider the insights of Augustine on the nature of divine grace. These readings in Augustine, plus the fruits of his own biblical study gradually began to erode the prevailing “works-righteousness” that had so thoroughly dominated his mind. A spiritual crisis arose while on a journey to Rome on behalf of his monastic order (1510-1511). After observing the cavalier lifestyle of the religious authorities in Rome he became acutely aware of the gross hypocrisy and corruption amongst the higher clergy. This realization deeply disturbed him and it became the basis for his future thoughts on the utter depravity of the human heart. Upon his return from Rome he completed studies for the Doctor of Theology degree (1512) and was appointed chair of biblical studies at Wittenberg University serving in this capacity for the rest of his life.
His class room lectures, and the personal studies that preceded them, were the final turning point in his search for righteousness. The book of Psalms, Paul’s letters to the Romans and Galatians, and the book of Hebrews greatly reshaped his understanding of the doctrines of grace, sin, righteousness, salvation, and Christian discipleship. He became profoundly aware of his own deep-rooted sin. Personal merit in all of its forms became offensive to him and he realized that righteousness was a judicial act of God through Christ rather than a result of individual striving. It was while pondering Romans 1:16-17 that he finally realized God’s righteousness was not the divine justice we fear, but the gracious gift that God gives to all believers who trust in Christ alone for salvation. Luther’s personal discovery led to a new emphasis of the central New Testament doctrine “justification by grace through faith” (cf. Romans 3:21-30, Ephesians 2:8-9, Titus 3:5-7). He wrote about this transformative experience saying,
I greatly longed to understand Paul’s Epistle to the Romans, and nothing stood in the way but that one expression, “the righteousness of God,” because I took it to mean that righteousness whereby God is righteous and deals righteously in punishing the unrighteous…Night and day I pondered until…I grasped the truth that the righteousness of God is that righteousness whereby, through grace and sheer mercy, he justifies us by faith. Thereupon I felt myself to be reborn and to have gone through open doors into paradise. The whole of Scripture took on new meaning, and whereas before “the righteousness of God” had filled with me with hate, now it became to me inexpressibly sweet in greater love. This passage of Paul became to me a gateway to heaven.
Tim Dowley, ed. The History of Christianity, 372
Luther posting the 95 Theses on the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg
Luther’s new found truths became a lightening rod for dissatisfaction in the church. He desired only to reform the church, not to leave it or to promote dissension. However, in 1517 when Johann Tetzel began preaching the sale of Indulgences (i.e. a “certificate of forgiveness” from sins)—Luther was outraged and an open controversy resulted. It seems that only Luther was bold enough to stand-up to this error. He responded with 95 Theses in Latin which were nailed to the Castle Church door at Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. These theses were quickly translated into German and were widely circulated. As a result, a growing throng of Germans supported his efforts at reform. Moreover, Luther came under great pressure from the church authorities to recant, especially when the sale of the Indulgences began to suffer. He pointedly wrote,
Thesis #27 — “Those who assert that a soul straightway flies out (of purgatory) as a coin tinkles in the collection-box, are preaching an invention of man.”
Thesis #28 — “It is sure that when a coin tinkles greed and avarice are increased; but the intercession of the church is the will of God alone.”
Thesis #32 — “Those who think themselves sure of salvation through their letters of pardon will be forever damned along with their teachers.”
Thesis #50 — “Christians must be taught that if the pope knew the exactions of the preachers of indulgences he would rather have Saint Peter’s basilica reduced to ashes than built with the skin, flesh, and bones of his sheep.”
Thesis #51 — “Christians are to be taught that the pope (as is his duty) would desire to give of his own substance to those poor men from many of whom certain sellers of pardons are extracting money; that to this end he would even, if need be, sell the basilica of Saint Peter.”
Thesis #52 — “Confidence in salvation through letters of indulgence is vain; and that even if the commissary, nay, even the pope himself, should pledge his soul as a guarantee.”
Thesis #62 — “The true treasure of the church is the most holy gospel of the glory and the grace of God.”
(Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, 197-203)
Albert, the Archbishop of Mainz, complained to Leo X, the Pope, about the growing popularity of Luther’s teachings. As a result, Luther became involved in defending himself at the Heidelberg disputation before his fellow Augustinians (1518), at the Augsburg disputation against Cardinal Cajetan (1518), and at the famous Leipzig disputation against Johann Eck (1519). This led to a Papal Bull being issued in June, 1520 (Exsurge Dominie) which began with the provocative phrase, “Arise, O Lord, and judge thy cause. A wild boar has invaded thy vineyard.” Indeed, a “wild boar” was rooting up the vineyard—but it was those vines that were not producing any fruit.
Emperor Charles V
Not long afterwards, Luther received a formal summons to appear at the imperial Diet at Worms (April, 1521). Charles the 5th, the Holy Roman Emperor, and all of the emissaries of the Roman Catholic Church put tremendous pressure on Luther to renounce his numerous teachings and writings at Worms. It was demanded that Luther recant, under the threat of being declared an “outlaw” of the empire, but after an anguished night of prayer and reflection he refused with the following courageous words,
Martin Luther defending himself at the Diet of Worms (1521)
Your Imperial Majesty and Lordships demand a simple answer. Here it is, plain and unvarnished. Unless I am convicted of error by the testimony of Scriptures or (since I put no trust in the unsupported authority of Pope or of councils, since it is plain that they have often erred and often contradicted themselves) by manifest reasoning I stand convicted by the Scriptures to which I have appealed, and my conscience is taken captive by God’s word, I cannot and will not recant anything, for to act against our conscience is neither safe for us, nor open to us. On this I take my stand. I can do no other. God help me. Amen.
Bettenson, Documents of the Christian Church, 214
The Wartburg Castle outside of Eisenach, Germany
Frederick III of Saxony
Although Luther had been promised “safe passage” to and from Worms, the supportive German Prince, Frederick of Saxony, feared for Luther’s life and quietly arranged for his “kidnapping” so that he would remain safe from those who sought his life. Heavily armed soldiers, loyal to Frederick, disguised themselves as common thieves and captured Luther, whisking him off to a castle high in the mountains of Thuringia. The entire German nation feared that their champion was dead! For almost a year he lay hidden in “The Wartburg” under a pseudonymous name, Junker Jorg, or “George the Knight.” It was during this time that he grew a beard and carried a large sword to complete the deception. He used his time of concealment well, however, and translated the entire New Testament into German (1522) and began work on the translation of the Old Testament which he finished in 1534. He also wrote many stirring hymns of which “A Mighty Fortress is our God” is the best known (no doubt inspired by Psalm 46 while in the Wartburg). Finally, when he could remain hidden no longer, he boldly emerged from his concealment and returned to Wittenberg to lead the fledgling efforts of reform (1522).
Family Life: Martin Luther leading hymns with his Wife, Children, and Philip Melanchthon
The following years of public leadership resulted in many significant changes within the German church. After reconsidering his vow of celibacy, Luther rejected it and encouraged the marriage of priests and nuns. He himself married the ex-nun Katharine von Bora in 1525. They enjoyed a happy life together and were blessed with six children. Frederick rewarded Luther with title to the Black Cloister monastery in Wittenberg; from then on it became known as Luther Haus. Moreover, the Christian education of children became prominent in his mind and he wrote a Large Catechism (1528) and a Small Catechism (1529) for the purpose of teaching theology to heads of households and promoting Bible reading in Christian families. He also brought about sweeping changes in the liturgy of the worship service, seeking to simplify it and to put it into German.
Luther and Zwingli argue over the Lord’s Supper at the Marburg Colloquy (1529)
Ulrich Zwingli
Luther was a man of strong passions and convictions. He both argued against and endeavored to unify fellow Reformers. When the German and Swiss Reformers gathered at the Marburg Colloquy in October, 1529 an explosive debate ensued between Ulrich Zwingli and Martin Luther over the nature of the Lord’s Supper. The question of whether Jesus Christ was really and truly present in the elements—the bread and wine—dominated the gathering. All of the Reformers sought to avoid the absurd complexity of transubstantiation (i.e. the belief that the elements were transformed by the Priest into the actual body and blood of Jesus). Zwingli argued that the Lord’s Supper was merely “a memorial service” where believers remembered the sacrificial death of Jesus on the Cross; quoting Jesus’ words, “Do this in remembrance of me” (Luke 22:19).
Martin Luther at Mid-Career
Luther, however, forcefully argued that Jesus’ words, “This is my body” and “This is my blood of the covenant” (Matt. 26:26-28), were more than a mere remembrance of a past event. Instead, Luther declared they affirmed the reality that Jesus’ actual body and blood were present “in, with, or under” the elements. Luther’s position in time became known as consubstantiation. He also affirmed the doctrine of “ubiquity”—that Jesus Christ was bodily present in the elements of the Lord’s Supper despite the fact that the “accidents” (the bread and wine) remained as bread and wine. This breach between the Lutherans and Swiss Reformers has never been fully healed. Although, Luther gave some credence to the solution that Calvin proposed many years later—that Jesus Christ was “spiritually” present in the elements of the Lord’s Supper—Luther and the Lutheran Church have doggedly held to the doctrine of consubstantiation.
How do we evaluate the life and ministry of Martin Luther? Consider this analogy: the Medieval Roman Catholic Church had become like a giant ship that over time sank lower and lower in the water and lost its ability to plow through the waves. Its hull had become so encrusted with unwanted barnacles and seaweed that it could barely move. Instead of racing through the ocean at top speed, this ship (i.e. the church) was so burdened with the excessive weight of the “traditions of men” that the gospel was completely obscured. One way for this situation to change was for the Lord to raise-up a group of godly men (i.e. the Reformers) who would drag the ship into a dry dock, empty out all of the water, and scrape the sides of the ship getting rid of all that encumbered it. Once this was done, the church—like a freshly cleaned and painted ship—was once again able to race through the water at top speed. In essence, Martin Luther accomplished what no man up to that time had been able to accomplish—he stripped away many of the “traditions of men” and recovered the gospel “that was once for all delivered to the saints” (Jude 3). For this stellar achievement, all Protestants should be exceedingly thankful!
Near the end of his life, Luther was asked about his lasting impact on the religious awakening of the day. Luther humbly replied,
I simply taught, preached, wrote God’s Word; otherwise I did nothing. And then, while I slept, or drank Wittenberg beer with my Philip and my Amsdorf, the Word so greatly weakened the papacy that never a prince or emperor did such damage to it. I did nothing. The Word did it all.
stephanek, Martin Luther, 15
Martin Luther died on Feb. 18, 1546 (aged 63) in the town of his birth, Eisleben, leaving a wonderful legacy that survives to this present day. Steven Lawson colorfully paints the scene of his death and his ongoing legacy with these words,
Luther’s Grave in the Castle Church
Knowing the end was near, he wrote his last will and testament. It began with the words, “I am well known in heaven, on earth, and in hell,” a true statement of the result of his bold stance throughout his life. In his last moments, Luther was asked by his friend Justus Jonas, “Do you want to die standing firm on Christ and the doctrine you have taught?” He answered emphatically, “Yes!” Luther’s last words were: “We are beggars. This is true.” Luther’s body was carried to Wittenberg as thousands of mourners lined the route. Church bells tolled for their fallen leader. Luther was buried, appropriately, in the Castle Church of Wittenberg. This was the very church where, twenty-nine years earlier, he had nailed his Ninety-five Theses. His final resting place was immediately below the pulpit, where he had so often stood to preach the Word. His wife, Katherine, wrote: “For who would not be sad and afflicted at the loss of such a precious man as my dear lord was. He did great things not just for a city or a single land, but for the whole world.” The influence of her husband did, indeed, reach around the globe.
Lawson, the heroic boldness of martin luther, 23
Martin Luther’s theology and personal convictions can be summarized in these six “rallying-cries” of the Protestant Reformation:
“By Christ Alone” (Solus Christus): Jesus Christ alone is the name by which we may be saved (John 14:6; Acts 4:12).
“Scripture Alone” (Sola Scriptura): The Bible alone is the source of God’s revelation, the gospel (John 10:35; 2 Timothy 3:14-17).
“By Grace Alone” (Sola Gratia): God’s grace alone is the ground of salvation, and this is received by faith (Ephesians 2:4-10; Titus 2:11-14).
“By Faith Alone” (Sola Fide): God-given faith is the only way to receive the imputed righteousness of Christ, and this results in our justification (Romans 1:16-17, 3:28; Ephesians 2:8-9).
“In the Presence of God” (Coram Deo): Christians are exhorted by the Bible to live all of life in the presence of God. This implies that there is no area of life where you do not have (negotium cum Deo) “business with God” (Ephesians 5:1-14; Colossians 3:1-17).
“To God Be the Glory” (Soli Deo Gloria): God alone is the proper recipient of our gratitude in the matter of salvation and the Christian life (1 Corinthians 10:31; Titus 3:5-7).
The entire Protestant world will be forever in the debt of Dr. Martin Luther. His recovery of the true Gospel from the accretions of human tradition and self-righteousness brought spiritual liberty to the heirs of the Reformation. His life-giving message continues on giving hope to Christians from every denomination throughout the globe. The preeminent Reformation scholar, Dr. Hugh T. Kerr, explains,
There is virtual unanimity among historians and theologians as to the unique importance and significance of Martin Luther. He was not only the outstanding hero of the Protestant Reformation, but his influence was such that subsequent history cannot be understood without taking him into consideration. Even those who do not subscribe to his views are forced to admit that he brought about a transformation, if not a reformation, in life and thought as well as in religion…Surely he is one of he pivotal personalities of history, and he has always been acknowledged as such. His appeal is universal, and if books about him mean anything he grows in importance with the passing years. That is why he belongs not to one branch of Protestantism, but, we may say, to Christian theology.
kerr, ed. A Compend of Luther’s theology, v
Thus, the life and legacy of Dr. Martin Luther continues on as a lasting testimony to God’s grace and mercy in the life of sinners! As he painfully gasped at the very end of his life, “We are beggars. This is true.”
Here are four of my favorite books on the life and theology of Dr. Martin Luther
And, here are four newer books on the life and theology of Dr. Martin Luther–all of them winners!
Resources for Further Study:
Althaus, Paul. The Theology of Martin Luther. Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1966.
Bainton, Roland H. Here I Stand: A Life of Martin Luther. New York: Penguin Books, 1950.
Bettenson, Henry and Chris Maunder. Documents of the Christian Church. 4th Edition. London, England: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Douglas, J.D., ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Justification,” by Ian Sellers
“Leo X,” by Robert G. Clouse
“Luther, Martin (1483-1546),” by Carl S. Meyer
“Melancthon, Phillip,” by Carl S. Meyer
“Reformation, The,” by Robert D. Linder
“Roman Catholicism,” by H. M. Carson
Dowley, Tim, ed. The History of Christianity. Revised edition. Oxford, England: Lion Publishers, 1990.
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Second Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 2001.
“Faith,” by J. I. Packer
“Justification,” by J. I. Packer
“Lord’s Supper, Views of,” by M. E. Osterhaven
“Luther, Martin,” by R. W. Heinze
“Marburg Colloquy,” by R. W. Heinze
“Zwingli, Ulrich,” by M. A. Noll
George, Timothy. Theology of the Reformers. Revised Edition. Nashville, TN: Broadman Press, 2013.
Hillerbrand, ed. Hans J. The Reformation: A Narrative History Related by Contemporary Observers and Participants. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, 1964.
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Kerr, Hugh Thomson, ed. A Compend of Luther’s Theology. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1943.
Kittleson, James M. Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and his Career. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1986.
Kolb, Robert. Martin Luther and the Enduring Word of God. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2016.
Kolb, Robert. Martin Luther as Prophet, Teacher, and Hero: Images of the Reformer 1520-1620. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1999.
Lawson, Steven J. The Heroic Boldness of Martin Luther. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2013.
Luther, Martin. The Bondage of the Will. Translated by J. I. Packer and O. R. Johnston. Grand Rapids, IM: Fleming H. Revell, 1957.
McGrath, Allister. Luther’s Theology of the Cross. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1990.
Nichols, Stephen J. Beyond the 95 Theses: Martin Luther’s Life, Thought, and Lasting Legacy. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2016.
Petersen, William J. Martin Luther had a Wife. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1983.
Rupp, Gordon. Luther’s Progress to the Diet of Worms 1521. London: SCM Press, 1951.
Selderhuis, Herman. Martin Luther: A Spiritual Biography. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Publishers, 2017.
Sproul, R. C. and Stephen Nichols, eds. The Legacy of Luther. Orlando, FL: Reformation Trust Publishing, 2016.
Stephanek, Sally. World Leaders Past and Present: Martin Luther. New York, NY: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986.
Watson, Philip S. Let God Be God: An Interpretation of the Theology of Martin Luther. London, The Epworth Press, 1947.
Woodbridge, John D., ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
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“Whoever, therefore, eats the bread or drinks the cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner will be guilty of profaning the body and blood of the Lord. ” 1 Cor. 11:27
St. Pierre Cathedral in Geneva, Switzerland–Calvin’s pulpit is at the center-left
Who possesses the authority to admit a person to the Lord’s Supper or to ban the unrepentant sinner from it—the civil magistrates or the officers of Christ’s Church? This central question plagued the city of Geneva for several decades during the time of the Reformation. The Ecclesiastical Ordinances, written by John Calvin in 1541 and received by the Small Council of Geneva in that same year (November 20th), clearly specifies that the Church retains the right to properly order the Lord’s Supper. This would include who is admitted to the Table and who is banned from the Table. Many of Calvin’s biographers have commented on these controversial events, but what original documents can be found to show exactly what happened? Two sources are notable (1) The Resister of the Company of Pastors in Geneva in the time of Calvin: 1546-1564, translated and edited by Philip E. Hughes (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1966), and (2) Life of John Calvin, written by Theodore Beza in 1564 immediately following Calvin’s death (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1983).
William Farel
The citizens of Geneva formally decided for the Reformation, against Roman Catholicism, on May 21, 1536. With right hands raised, they swore to live by the Word of God and to reject Romanist idolatries. This initial effort was led by two missionary evangelists, William Farel (1489-1565) and Pierre Viret (1511-1571). Shortly after this, John Calvin was also added to the team of Reformers working in Geneva. These ministers of the gospel envisioned a reformation that would not only bring about the adoption of a new Protestant Statement of Faith, which was presented to the Small Council in January 1537, but also a complete reformation of the morals of the town. They rightly reasoned that for any reform effort to be successful a change in doctrine (orthodoxy) must always be accompanied by a change in behavior (orthopraxy). Geneva had been long known for its loose morals. Dr. John T. McNeill, a highly regarded Reformation historian, comments,
Moral conditions were, indeed, such as to invite drastic reform. Medieval Geneva, by common consent of historians, abounded in centers of dissolute pleasure. Even contemporary opponents of the Reformation freely accuse the pre-Reformation clergy and friars of appalling misbehavior; and while this was resented by the people, it was also imitated by them. Genevese gaiety was often associated with intemperance, obscenity, and licentiousness.
McNeill, The History and Character of Calvinism, 166
John Calvin as a young Pastor
Calvin drafted a plan for the reformation of the church and society of Geneva and he called it the Ecclesiastical Ordinances (1541). It was composed by Calvin right after his return to Geneva. His basic plan was to establish four offices within the church—pastors, doctors, elders, and deacons. These men had the spiritual responsibility to advance the teaching of biblical doctrine and behavior. Violations of these biblical standards would be enforced by the Genevan Consistory; which was made up of representatives from both the church and civil government. If the violations were of a serious nature and recurrent then a person could be suspended from the Lord’s Table. What breaches might lead to suspension from the Lord’s Table? Here are seven stipulations listed in the Ecclesiastical Ordinances,
(1) If anyone speaks critically against the received doctrine”, (2) “If anyone is negligent to come to church in such a way that a serious contempt of Christians is apparent”, (3) “if any one shows himself to be scornful of the ecclesiastical order”, (4) “those who mock at the specific admonitions of their neighbor”, (5) “for those notorious and public vices which the Church cannot condone”, (6) “for those crimes which deserve not only verbal rebuke but correction with punishment”, (7) “If through contumacy or rebelliousness such a person attempts to intrude himself contrary to the prohibition.
Hughes, Ed. The Register, 48-49
The length of the suspension, whether it was temporary or permanent, would depend upon the offending person’s repentance. Accordingly, the pastor who was responsible for administering the Lord’s Supper was also responsible to “fence the Table” so that those who were “unworthy” partakers would not be able to receive the Lord’s Supper. The Reformers insisted that the “three marks of a church” are these: (1) the true preaching of the Word of God; (2) the right administration of the Sacraments (Baptism and the Lord’s Supper); and (3) the faithful exercise of church discipline (cf. Berkhof, Systematic Theology, 576-578). Calvin strongly resolved that upon these three foundational marks the Church of Jesus Christ in Geneva would be built.
Here is a “primary source” that reveals the reforming work of the Genevan Church
During the fourteen years that followed the approval of the Ecclesiastical Ordinances by the City Council (November 20, 1541) wide-ranging conflicts raged throughout Geneva. It proved far easier to reform the doctrine of the people than to reform their behavior. As a result an opposition party was formed by some of the key families of Geneva (the Perrins, Favres, Vandels, Bertheliers, etc.). They called themselves the Libertines (also known as the Enfants de Geneva). Here is an example from The Register of the Company of Pastors (December 23, 1552) where a certain individual complained to the Small Council (referred to as the Messieurs or Senate) about being suspended from the Lord’s Table.
On the same day and at the same hour Messieurs proposed to us that some reconciliation should be made in the case of those who had been banned from the supper by the Consistory. Monsieur Calvin replied at once in the name of all the brethren, making two requests on our behalf: firstly, that they should not give the ministers the authority which belonged to the whole Consistory, of which each was a member, since it was not for us as individuals to deprive anyone of the supper, nor did we have authority, apart from the decision of the Consistory, to readmit those who had been deprived; and, secondly, that they should exhibit the same impartiality to all. Philibert Berthelier was then sent into our presence. He showed the same or even greater rebelliousness than before, saying that it was not his understanding that the Consistory possessed such authority nor that the people were bound by its decisions. Messieurs therefore confirmed the sentence of the Consistory and pronounced him unworthy of the supper.
hughes, ed. The Register, 205
Who exactly was Philibert Berthelier? Dr. Philip E. Hughes, a capable and well-known Calvin scholar, writes,
Philibert Berthelier, son of the hero and martyr for Genevan freedom, was one of Calvin’s most intransigent adversaries in Geneva. Communion was forbidden him in 1551 because he had publicly declared that he was “just as good a man as Calvin,” and despite his repeated protestations, this ban was regularly renewed. In defiance of the authority of the Consistory, Berthelier appealed to the Council, and the latter attempted to set aside this ban, to the great offense of Calvin’s followers.
Hughes, ed.The Register, note #39, 205
The decision of the Small Council to uphold the Berthelier’s suspension from the Lord’s Table became a focal point of controversy. The Libertines argued that suspension from the Lord’s Table was an “individual matter”, and at other times they argued that it should be decided by the Small Council and not by the Genevan Consistory.
Michael Servetus
Ten months later in the midst of the heresy trial for Michael Servetus (August 17, 1553 through October 26, 1553), the determined Philibert Berthelier once again requested permission from the Small Council to be readmitted to the Lord’s Supper (September 1, 1553). It should be pointed out that the excommunicate Berthelier was also serving as the defense attorney for Servetus. This stormy trial was utilized by the Libertines as a means for undermining the authority of the Reformers. Bringing up once again the issue of Berthelier’s ban from the Lord’s Supper was simply a way of increasing the pressure on Calvin and the other Reformers. The Register of the Company of Pastors states,
At the beginning of September 1553 this church was greatly troubled since Philibert Berthelier, who had been excommunicated and forbidden the Sacraments because of his rebellion against the Consistory, had been granted absolution by Messieurs, without the Consistory being given a hearing. This action was opposed by the ministers, who unanimously declared that they could not admit this man, or others like him, to the supper until the Consistory had evidence of repentance, and had absolved him. It was objected, moreover, that the order of the Church laid down that authority to forbid or admit to the Lord’s supper belonged to the Consistory, and not Messieurs. Maitre Jean Calvin protested publicly from the pulpit, in the same sermon when the supper was administered, that under no circumstances would he receive such a rebel at the supper, and that it was not for men to compel him to do what was scandalous, but that Messieurs rather should be urged to prevent Berthelier from presenting himself at the sacrament.
hughes, ed. The register, 285-286
The City Hall of Geneva
Why, then, was this precise moment the opportune time to push the point of Berthelier’s excommunication? Several citizens who were members of the Libertine party had recently secured key positions on the Small Council and in the Council of the Two Hundred. With Ami Perrin, one of their own, now in charge as the First Syndic, they reasoned that they could overthrow the power and authority of the Church (and Calvin) at this crucial moment. There had also been several small victories in the Servetus trial for the defense and it was theoretically possible that he could be set free and Calvin held liable for bringing false charges against an innocent man. This political scheme could very well have worked, but they did not reckon with the steel-like resolve of Calvin. Theodore Beza comments,
So far this year seems to have been divided between hope and fear, the former, however, prevailing in the end. But while the cause of Servetus was under discussion, one of the factious, Berthelier by name, a man of the most consummate impudence, whom the Presbytery, for his many iniquities, excluded from the Lord’s Table, comes before the Senate, and prays to be absolved by their authority. Had this been done, there cannot be a doubt that the bond of ecclesiastical discipline being forthwith dissolved, everything would instantly have gone to wreck. Therefore Calvin, in name of the Presbytery, made strenuous and unremitting opposition, showing that magistrates ought to be the vindicators, not the destroyers, of sacred laws. In short, he omitted nothing which a contest of so much moment demanded. However, the false clamors of those who said that the Presbytery were in some things arrogating to themselves the authority of the magistrates prevailed, and it was, accordingly resolved, in the Council of the Two Hundred, that, in excommunication, the ultimate right belonged to the Senate, who were entitled to absolve whom they pleased. In consequence of this resolution having been passed by the Senate, who had then given little attention to the subject, Berthelier surreptitiously obtained letters of absolution under the seal of the Republic. Perrin, with his followers, hoped that one of two consequences would follow—that if Calvin refused to obey the Senate, he would be able to overwhelm him by means of a mob; that if Calvin obeyed, he would have no difficulty in depriving the Presbytery of all authority, in other words, in removing every restraint upon wickedness.
Beza, Life of John Calvin, lxii
Regardless of Calvin’s appeals, the Small Council upheld the decision to restore Berthelier to the Lord’s Table. However, several members of the Small Council began to waver in their convictions—they became afraid that if they defied Calvin and the Genevan Consistory there would be a general uprising leading to a complete collapse of law and order. Therefore, Berthelier was privately ordered by his friends to not partake of the Lord’s Supper; but Calvin knew nothing of this secret decision.
Calvin barring the Libertines from the Lord’s Table as “the despisers of sacred mysteries”
When the day for worship arrived two days later St. Pierre’s Cathedral was unusually crowded (September 3, 1553). All of the Libertines swaggered in with their hands placed on the hilts of their swords, and took their seats near the Lord’s Table. Calvin boldly preached his sermon, and after descending from the pulpit he firmly placed himself behind the Lord’s Table refusing to serve any “despisers of sacred mysteries”. He said, “These hands you may crush; these arms you may lop off; my life you may take; my blood is yours, you may shed it; but you shall never force me to give holy things to the profane, and dishonor the table of my God.” (Wiley, The History of Protestantism, Vol. 2, 327) These words hit the Libertines like a thunder-clap, and those who had entered the church so proudly now left it very ashamed of themselves. Beza reports,
But Calvin, though he had been informed of what was done only two days before the usual period of celebrating the Lord’s Supper, raising his voice and his hand in the course of his sermon, after he had spoken at some length of the despisers of sacred mysteries, exclaimed, in the words of Chrysostom, “I will die sooner than this hand shall stretch forth the sacred things of the Lord to those who have been judged despisers.” These words, strange to say, had such an effect upon these men, however lawless, that Perrin secretly advised Berthelier not to come forward to the Table. The sacrament was celebrated with extraordinary silence, not without some degree of trembling, as if the Deity himself were actually present.
Beza, Life of John Calvin, lxii-lxiii
Later that afternoon Calvin prepared to preach what he thought would be his final sermon in Geneva. It was his firm expectation that he would once again be banished from the tumultuous city as had previously happened in 1538. Thus, he chose for his text Acts 20:17-38, where Paul gives his farewell address to the Ephesian Elders. Beza writes,
Theodore Beza
In the afternoon Calvin, taking for his text the celebrated passage in the Acts of the Apostles, in which Paul bids farewell to the Church of Ephesus, declared that he was not a man who knew or taught others to fight against magistrates; and after exhorting his audience at great length to persevere in the doctrine which they had heard, as if it was the last sermon he was to deliver at Geneva, concluded thus:–“Since these things are so, allow me also, brethren, to use these words of the Apostle, ‘I commend you to the Lord, and to the Word of his grace’.” These words made a wonderful impression even on the most abandoned, while they, at the same time, seriously warned good men what their duty was.
Beza, life of John calvin, lxiii
But, in God’s gracious providence, Calvin was not removed as he feared from his position as head pastor of the Genevan Church. Instead, the Small Council did nothing and the Libertines retreated into their parlors to make further strategies of how they could defeat the Reformers, especially Calvin. This extraordinary standoff at the Lord’s Supper surely can be compared with Martin Luther’s dramatic declaration of faith at the Diet of Worms in 1521. Whereas Luther defied the edict of Charles 5th and the assembled Roman Catholic priests in a great doctrinal battle, Calvin defied the schemes of Berthelier and the Libertines in a great moral battle. Dr. James A. Wylie, the preeminent Scottish historian of the Reformation, summarizes,
We know nothing more truly sublime in the whole history of the Reformation, that epoch of heroic men and grand events. The only thing we can compare with it is Luther’s appearance at the Diet of Worms. If we abstract the dramatic accompaniments of the latter scene—the gorgeous hall; the majesty of the emperor; the blaze of princely and knightly rank gathered around him; the glitter of stars and decorations; the men-at-arms; the lackeys and other attendants—and look only at the principle at stake, and the wide and lasting good achieved by the prompt vindication of the principle, the act of Calvin in the Cathedral of St. Peter’s, in 1553, stands side by side, its equal in spiritual sublimity and heroism, with the act of Luther in the Hall of Worms, in 1521. “I cannot,” said Luther. “I will not,” said Calvin. The one repelled the tyrant, the other flung back the mob; the one stemmed the haughtiness of power, the other bridled the raging fury of ungodliness; in both the danger was equal, in both the faith and fortitude were equal, and each saved the Reformation at a great crisis.
Wylie, The History of Protestantism, Vol. 2, 328
Even though this one battle was narrowly won by Calvin and the Reformers it was only a few weeks later that the Libertines launched a fresh attack (November 7, 1553). This time Berthelier and the Libertines sought to influence the more malleable Council of the Two Hundred.
On Tuesday 7 November the Council of the Two Hundred was convened in connection with the question of the authority of the Consistory and to consider the problem of respecting to whom it belongs to excommunicate and to absolve. Before the Two Hundred had entered, however, Messieurs declared that it was their intention to reserve to themselves the power of absolving those who had been banned from the supper. Thereupon the Consistory asked to be allowed to consult among themselves and, having withdrawn, resolved that they could not possibly consent to the pretensions of Messieurs, which were contrary to the order of the church, and they requested to be heard before the Council of the Two Hundred. In the presence of the Council Maitre Jean Calvin, speaking for the Consistory, stated the case most adequately and explained why it was impossible to acquiesce in the pretensions of Messieurs; and then the declaration which had previously been presented in writing to Messieurs by the ministers was read before all. On the following Thursday, after hearing the decision of the Council of Two Hundred that the whole right of forbidding from and readmitting to the supper should be taken away from the Consistory, the ministers presented themselves before Messieurs and unanimously declared that they were unable to consent to this ruling, and that to compel obedience would be to drive them from their charge, for they would choose death rather than consent to the abandonment of so holy and sacred an order, which had so long been preserved in this church. The ministers—and especially M. Jean Calvin, in accordance with the written promises he had received from Messieurs—requested to be heard before the Council of Two Hundred and the General Council. This was not granted, but they were told the request would receive attention.
hughes, ed. The Register, 291
This apparent defeat suffered by Calvin and the Reformers shows that they did not, in fact, dominate the political affairs of Geneva as some have wrongly asserted. The ongoing struggle shows that there was a lively dissent against the reformation of morals in Geneva, and that the Libertines had every possibility of defeating the Reformers.
A few weeks later on December 21, 1553 the controversy continued on, but this time within the chambers of the Small Council. The Genevan Consistory was summoned to defend themselves against charges of intolerance and spiritual tyranny.
An artist’s conception of the Genevan Consistory at work
On Thursday 21 December the Consistory was summoned before Messieurs in connection with the case of Philibert Berthelier, who insisted on being admitted to the supper. The Consistory opposed this until such a time as Berthelier should give evidence of repentance and humble himself before the Consistory, against whom he had been rebellious. Immediately Francois Berthelier, who had accompanied his brother, burst out, in the presence of Messieurs, with outrageous accusations against the ministers, asserting that they wished to tyrannize and dominate and were disobedient to the Seigneurie. Because of these harmful and monstrous accusations Messieurs commanded him to leave. As for Philibert, no further ruling was given, except that he could continue to abstain from the supper.
hughes, ed. the register, 293
The Genevan Consistory responded to this angry outburst with their own summons for Francois Berthelier to appear before them.
On the same day Francois Berthelier was summoned before the Consistory and asked how he could conscientiously partake of the Lord’s Supper in view of the outrageous things he had uttered that morning in the presence of Messieurs. He, however, continued his calumnies, declaring that so far as the Consistory was concerned he was addressing himself only to the ministers, whose treatment of his brother had been satanical, in holding him to be excommunicated and reprobate, without being able to produce any reason for doing so. He claimed, further, that he had power to give absolution just as much as they had to excommunicate, with a number of outrageous utterances. Thereupon he too was banned from the supper, and it was resolved that on the following Thursday all the members of the Consistory should present themselves before Messieurs to complain of the outrageous charges which had been made by Francois.
hughes, ed. the register, 293
In time, the Genevan Consistory was successful in thwarting the attack of the Berthelier brothers and the Libertines; this later led to Francois Berthelier’s repentance on March 8, 1554.
On Thursday 8 March, by order of Messieurs, Francois Berthelier attended the Consistory where he declared that he had been carried away by affection for his brother, with the result that he had said things against the ministers which should not have been said, and that he was sorry for having said them. He requested that he should be readmitted to the supper, which had been forbidden him. After various exhortations this was granted.
hughes, ed. the register, 294
His brother, though, was unrepentant when he appeared a few weeks later,
On Thursday 22 March Philibert Berthelier also attended the Consistory by order of the Messieurs. He was sent out and recalled three or four times, but refused to acknowledge his fault and his rebelliousness, despite the fact that a number of good and godly admonitions were addressed to him. Accordingly, the ban against his partaking of the supper of our Lord remained in force.
hughes, ed. The Register, 294
The controversy surrounding the Lord’s Supper see-sawed back and forth for several months until the elections of January 1555 changed the political mix of the Small Council and the Council of the Two Hundred in favor of the Reformers. With renewed vigor Calvin and the other ministers persuaded the Small Council to formally adopt the Ecclesiastical Ordinances, and they did so on January 24, 1555. A comprehensive victory for the Reformers was finally achieved!
On Thursday 24 January the Council of 60 and the Council of Two Hundred assemble in connection with the question of the authority of the Consistory and excommunication, and at both Councils M. Jean Calvin, in the name of the Consistory, the ministers of the city also being present with him, very adequately refuted the arguments which had been advanced for the diminution or rather the demolition of the Consistory’s authority, and demonstrated from passages of Holy Scripture and from the practice always found in the Church when it was in a state of purity what was the true use of excommunication, and to whom it belonged to excommunicate and to admit to communion. Thereupon, despite every effort of Satan to overthrow so godly and useful an order, Sr. Amblard Corne, the first Syndic, announced to the ministers in full Council that God had been victorious, and that both the Council of 60 and the Council of 200 had resolved that the Consistory should retain its status and exercise its accustomed authority, in accordance with the Word of God and the ordinances previously passed.
Hughes, ed. the register, 305
John Calvin in his maturity
Following the election and the success of the Reformers, the Libertines became desperate to bring about a change—and they sought to do this through anarchy and revolution. Their fractious spirit culminated in a not-too-secretive plot to foment a public riot (May 16, 1555). It was their hope was to kill Calvin and several other church officers in one swift blow. Thankfully, these murderous plans were discovered and the riot turned out to be a small affair carried out by an inebriated rabble. The rioters were quickly apprehended, yet Perrin and Berthelier fled the city and later were tried in absentia. The Libertines were finally defeated.
Who, then, possesses the authority to admit a person to the Lord’s Supper or to ban the unrepentant sinner from it—the civil magistrates or the officers of Christ’s Church? In answer to this question it is helpful to remember that God has given each one of the separate jurisdictions an implement to accomplish its mission:
the civil magistrate is given the “sword” to enforce the laws of the land (Romans 13:4)
the family is given the “rod” to enforce the laws of the home (Proverbs 13:24)
the church is given the “keys” to enforce the laws of the Bible (Matthew 16:19)
Specifically, the Lord Jesus said to his Apostles, “I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.” (Matthew 16:19). A few chapters later our Lord powerfully states the doctrine of excommunication that his Church should always follow. He gives precise instructions about how to treat an unrepentant sinner,
If he refuses to listen to them, tell it to the church. And if he refuses to listen even to the church, let him be to you as a Gentile and a tax collector. Truly, I say to you, whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.
matthew 18:17-18
It is clear, then, that our Lord gave authority to the Apostles to admit the believer to the Lord’s Table or to ban the unrepentant sinner from it—these men and their fellow church officers are given authority from the Lord both to “bind” and to “loose”. In this way they are using the “keys of the kingdom”. It is also helpful to recall what Calvin wrote that is based upon these biblical principles. He says,
The church does not assume what is proper to the magistrate; nor can the magistrate execute what is carried out by the church…Their functions ought to be so joined that each serves to help, not hinder, the other.
calvin, institutes, 4:11:3
And so in conclusion, who possesses the authority to admit a person to the Lord’s Supper or to ban the unrepentant sinner from it—the civil magistrates or the officers of Christ’s Church? It is not the civil magistrate, nor the family, but the officers of Christ’s Church who have the sole authority from God to admit to the Lord’s Supper or to ban the unrepentant sinner from it.
Resources for Further Study:
Berkhof, Louis. Systematic Theology. Fourth Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1939.
Beza, Theodore. Life of John Calvin. Edited and translated by Henry Beveridge, included in the Selected Works of John Calvin: Tracts and Letters. Volume 1. Originally published in Edinburgh by the Calvin Translation Society, 1844. Reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1983.
Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. The Library of Christian Classics, vol. XXI. Edited by John T. McNeill and translated by Ford Lewis Battles. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1960.
Hughes, Philip E., ed. and trans. The Register of the Company of Pastors of Geneva in the Time of Calvin. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1966.
McKim, Donald, ed. Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1992.
“Authority”, by W. Stanford Reid
“Beza, Theodore”, by Philip C. Holtrop
“Calvin, John”, by Hughes O. Old
“Calvinism”, by W. Stanford Reid
“Confirmation/Admission to the Lord’s Supper”, by James A. Whyte
“Church”, by Jack L. Scotts
“Discipline, Church”, by J. Wayne Baker
“Ecclesiastical Ordinances”, by Robert D. Linder
“Elders”, by Elsie Anne McKee
“Farel, William”, by Charles Partee
“Geneva Company of Pastors”, by Robert M. Kingdon
“Geneva Consistory”, by Robert M. Kingdon
“Genevan Reformation”, by Robert M. Kingdon
“Liturgy, Reformed”, by David G. Buttrick
“Lord’s Supper”, by Geoffrey W. Bromiley
“Sacraments”, by M. Eugene Osterhaven
“Servetus, Michael”, by Nathan P. Feldmeth
“Theology, Reformed”, by John H. Leith
“Viret, Pierre”, by Robert D. Linder
“Worship”, by Hughes O. Olds
McNeill, John T. The History and Character of Calvinism. London: Oxford University Press, 1954.
Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2012 – All Rights Reserved
Four treasured books that have given me a lasting appreciation for Reformed Theology
“Reformed theology so far transcends the mere five points of Calvinism that it is an entire worldview.” ~Dr. R. C. Sproul
Class Description:
Is a belief in Reformed Theology a valid option for the contemporary Christian? The central thesis of this class is that Reformed Theology has “an abiding validity” since it freely flows from the pages of Holy Scripture. With that thesis in mind, we will explore the distinct beliefs of Reformed Theology in the Bible, in the key personalities of the Early Church, in the teaching of the Protestant Reformers, and in the significant Reformed thinkers of the modern era. Moreover, we will discuss how Reformed Theology has shaped modern culture—even though there are many who deny this fact—and how it has positively impacted education, care for the poor, law, politics, economics, a free society/liberty, vocation, the arts, missions, and social change. There will be multiple handouts and book recommendations given out for the benefit of each student.
Location:
Redeemer Presbyterian Church (PCA) located in Austin, Texas. We will meet in Room 206 which is the large classroom upstairs in Calvin Hall.
Time:
Sunday mornings (10:15-11:00 AM) [See class schedule below]
Class Instructor:
Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven is a longtime teacher of the Bible, Reformed theology, and the history of Christ’s Church. After a lengthy pastoral career of serving Presbyterian churches in both California and Missouri (1980-2016), Marcus and his family relocated to Austin, Texas in order to retire—but God had other plans! He now serves as the Pastor of Christian Discipleship at Redeemer Presbyterian Church and is a member of the Presbytery of South Texas (PCA). Marcus has earned degrees from the University of California at Davis (BA), Fuller Theological Seminary (MDiv), and Covenant Theological Seminary (ThM and DMin). He is an active member of the Evangelical Theological Society and the Calvin Studies Society.
Class Schedule:
— June 6 – What is Reformed Theology? (Part 1)
— June 13 – What is Reformed Theology? (Part 2)
— June 20 – The Early Church: Paul, Ignatius, Justin Martyr, Tertullian, Augustine
— June 27 – The Protestant Reformation: Zwingli, Bucer, Luther, Calvin, Knox
— July 18 – A Reformed Worldview: Law, Politics, Care for the Poor
— July 25 – A Reformed Worldview: A Free Society/Liberty, Education, Personal Vocation
— August 1 – No Class
— August 8 – A Reformed Worldview: Economics, the Arts, Missions, Social Change
I hope you can join us as we study Reformed Theology–its foundation in the Bible, its proponents in the Early Church, the Reformation, and the Modern Era. And lastly, we’ll reflect upon its significant (but oftentimes unacknowledged) influence upon all that is good and life-producing in modern culture. You may be surprised at what you learn! Come check it out!
What exactly is Presbyterianism? A belief in Presbyterianism is distinguished by three essential marks: (1) a belief in the sovereignty of God, (2) a belief in covenant theology, and (3) a belief in a church government led by elders. Presbyterian doctrines and practices are summarized in the historic Westminster Confession of Faith(1647) and the Westminster Larger and Shorter Catechisms. The practical outworking of these beliefs can be found in the Book of Church Order used by various Presbyterian denominations. The church historian, Dr. S. Donald Fortson III, describes who Presbyterians are in this way,
Being Presbyterian involves multiple layers of identity and connection. As Christians, Presbyterians are “catholic,” sharing the common heritage of ancient Christianity with all believers, of all times, in all places. Presbyterians are Protestant by conviction sharing the rich spiritual heritage of the sixteenth century in reaffirming the primacy of Scripture and the rediscovery of the Gospel. Within the sixteenth century Protestant Reformation, Presbyterians identify themselves uniquely with one of the church families known as the “Reformed Tradition.” In this stream, Presbyterians view themselves in special connection to the reforms of John Calvin, John Knox and the English Puritans. Historically, Presbyterians are also part of the evangelical movement; that is, they have embraced the legacy of the eighteenth century revivals (awakenings) in America and Britain and thus believe in the necessity of conversion experience, personal holiness and being missional. Each of these historic layers is equally important to Presbyterian identity…
S. Donald Fortson III, The Presbyterian Story, 7
The Sovereignty of God:
The Bible teaches that God is in control of all events, both the good and the bad. Sovereignty means that God rules and reigns in the midst of all circumstances, accomplishing all of his holy will (Genesis 50:19-21; Psalm 103:19; Proverbs 16:4; Ecclesiastes 7:14; Acts 2:22-24; Romans 8:28; James 1:2-4; 1 Peter 1:6-9). This does not mean that God is responsible for the evil behavior of men, rather that all men are “without excuse” for their sins and will answer to God for their wicked behavior (Matthew 25:31-32, 46; Romans 2:1-16, 14:10-12; 2 Corinthians 5:10). The doctrine of sovereignty in regard to salvation is best summarized by the “Doctrines of Grace” (which are also known as The Five Points of Calvinism):
John Calvin (1509-1564)
T – Total Depravity or Total Inability (Genesis 3:1-24, 6:1-8; Jeremiah 17:9-10; Mark 7:14-23; John 1:12-13; Romans 1:18-32, 3:9-18, 23, 6:23, 9:16). [Versus Human Ability or Pelagianism or Semi-Pelagianism]
L – Limited Atonement or Definite Atonement or Particular Redemption (Isaiah 53:4-6; Jeremiah 31:31-34; Matthew 20:28; John 10:1-5, 14-15, 27-29). [Versus Universal Redemption or General Atonement or Amyraldianism]
I – Irresistible Grace or Efficacious Grace (John 11:43-44; Acts 9:1-19, 16:14; John 6:44, 10:1-5, 27; 1 Corinthians 2:14; 2 Corinthians 2:15-16). [Versus Resistance of the Holy Spirit by Human Ability]
P – Perseverance of the Saints or Eternal Security (Matthew 6:16-20, 24:13; John 3:3-8, 6:37, 39, 47, 10:27-29, 15:8; Romans 10:8-10; Ephesians 1:13-14; Philippians 1:6, 2:12-13; 1 Peter 1:3-5; 1 John 5:13). [Versus Falling from Grace or Losing One’s Salvation]
A Covenant Theology:
Johannes Cocceius (1603-1669)
God has related to a certain people throughout history—His people. Thinking of National Israel as the people of God was the initial pattern for understanding this doctrine. However, it is clear that, “…they are not all Israel who are descended from Israel” (Romans 9:6). Thus, God’s people are those who are the spiritual descendants of Abraham rather than the physical descendants of Abraham (cf. Romans 2:28-29, 9:6-8; Galatians 3:7-9, 29; Ephesians 2:13-22). The relationship that God has enjoyed with His people has been shown through a series of expanding covenants. Each covenant had blessings that came with obedience and curses that came with disobedience. Each covenant is progressive, in that through time God has revealed more of His redemptive plan to successive generations. The ultimate expression of God’s covenantal relationship is revealed in the New Covenant which is accomplished by the redemptive work of Jesus Christ on the Cross. God’s covenant people are Believers, their children, and all who are in the visible church (cf. Genesis 12:2-3, 17:7-11; Deuteronomy 5:1-21, 7:7-9, 10:16; Psalm 103:17-18; Jeremiah 31:27-34; Acts 2:39; Romans 2:28-29; 1 Corinthians 7:14; Galatians 3:6-9, 29; Ephesians 2:14-16, 3:6-7; Hebrews 9). There are two Sacraments ordained by Jesus Christ: the Lord’s Supper and Baptism. The Lord’s Supper is a memorial feast where Christ is spiritually present in the hearts of every Believer–as taught by Martin Bucer, John Calvin, John Knox, Charles Hodge, A. A. Hodge, etc. Believers, both adult and children, are admitted to the Lord’s Table upon giving a credible confession of faith to the elders of the local church. Both adult Believer’s baptism and infant baptism are practiced in Presbyterian churches as a sign of our identification with Christ and and our entrance into the visible church. Infant baptism is based upon the covenant made by God with Abraham and all of his descendants (Genesis 17:7-14). The children of Believers are part of the covenant by virtue of their birth and are thereby entitled to its benefits and liable under its sanctions (cf. Acts 2:38-39; 1 Corinthians 7:14; Ephesians 6:1-4). In the New Testament the practice of circumcision has been superseded by baptism (Colossians 2:11-12).
A Church Government Led by Elders:
John Knox (1514-1572)
The Old Testament speaks of the practice of appointing elders. For example, Jethro gave his son-in-law Moses wise advice concerning the difficulty of leading the entire nation of Israel all by himself (Exodus 18:17-27). He urged Moses to pick out men of sound character to oversee all of the minor disputes. Moses would then be able to decide the major disputes that the elders could not handle. This practice was a prelude to the New Testament paradigm that would be developed by the Jesus Christ when he selected his disciples (Mark 3:13-19). The New Testament uses the Greek word presbuteros to refer to “elders,” and “older men” (Titus 2:2). For example, Paul instructed Timothy and Titus, both of whom were younger pastors, to seek out mature men to serve the local church as overseers or elders (2 Timothy 2:2). The specific qualifications for these local church leaders are given so that the character of each candidate might be thoroughly evaluated by the congregation (1 Timothy 3:1-7; Titus 1:5-9). After evaluating a man’s life, doctrine, family, and character the church confirms the calling of God by electing that man an elder. Duly elected elders can serve Christ’s Church in several different capacities, such as Evangelists, Pastors, and Teachers (Ephesians 4:11). There are two other Greek words implying Church authority that the Bible speaks of as well: diakonos (deacon) and episkopos (overseer or bishop). Within a Presbyterian form of government deacons are elected by the congregation for the purpose of meeting the physical needs of the people, visiting the sick, and administering the possessions of the Church. In many respects, the Presbytery serves as the episkopos over a group of churches in a specific region, and is made up of the all the regional elders. Rather than investing authority in a single individual to serve as a bishop, the collective wisdom of a plurality of godly elders is emphasized in decision-making for the whole Church. Beyond that, the Church has an annual meeting of elders from all the regional Presbyteries for the purpose of gathering together in a General Assembly (Acts 15:1-35).
American Presbyterian Denominations (Current List):
— Presbyterian Church USA (PCUSA) [1,302,000 members]
— Presbyterian Church in America (PCA) [384,000 members]
— Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC) [145,000 members]
— Covenant Order of Evangelical Presbyterians (ECO) [121,000 members]
— Cumberland Presbyterian Church (CPC) [87,000 members]
— Korean Presbyterian Church in America (KPCA) [55,000 members]
— Korean American Presbyterian Church (KAPC) [53,000 members]
— Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (ARP) [39,000 members]
— Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC) [30,000 members]
— Reformed Presbyterian Church US (RPC) [7,800 members]
— Bible Presbyterian Church (BPC) [3,500 members]
— Covenant Presbyterian Church (CPC) [13 churches]
— Reformed Presbyterian Church, General Assembly (RPCGA) [7 churches]
— Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States (RPCUS) [3 churches]
Source: “List of Presbyterian and Reformed denominations in North America” (Wikipedia, Accessed 4-29-2021) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Presbyterian_and_Reformed_denominations_in_North_America
Select Bibliography:
Dr. Loraine Boettner (1901-1990)
Boettner, Loraine. The Reformed Doctrine of Predestination. Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing, 1932.
Clouse, Robert G. “Covenant Theology” in The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. J. D. Douglas, ed. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Fortson III, S. Donald. The Presbyterian Story: Origins and Progress of a Reformed Tradition. 2nd Edition. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock Publishers, 2017.
Dr. Charles Hodge (1797-1878)
Hart, Darrel G. and John R. Muether. Seeking a Better Country: 300 Years of American Presbyterianism. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2007.
Hodge, Archibald A. Outlines of Theology. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, Reprint, 1972.
Jellema, Dirk. “Predestination” in The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. J. D. Douglas, ed. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Dr. John H. Leith (1919-2002)
Leith, John H. An Introduction to the Reformed Tradition. Revised Edition. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox, 1977.
Loetscher, Lefferts A. A Brief History of the Presbyterians. Third Edition. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1978.
Lucas, Sean Michael. On Being Presbyterian: Our Beliefs, Practices, and Stories. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2006.
McKim, ed., Donald K. Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992.
Dr. James H. Thornwell (1812-1862)
McNeill, John T. The History and Character of Calvinism. London, England: Oxford University Press, 1954.
Palmer, Benjamin M., ed. The Life and Letters of James Henley Thornwell. First Published in 1875; Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1974.
Reid, W. Stanford. “Presbyterianism” in The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. J. D. Douglas, ed. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Reymond, Robert L. A New Systematic Theology of the Christian Faith. Second Edition. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1998.
Dr. R. C. Sproul (1939-2017)
Sproul, R. C. What Is Reformed Theology? Understanding the Basics. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1997.
Steele, David N., Curtis C. Thomas, S. Lance Quinn. The Five Points of Calvinism: Defined, Defended, and Documented. Second Edition. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2004.
Wells, David F., ed. Reformed Theology in America: Southern Reformed Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1989.
Wells, David F., ed. Reformed Theology in America: The Princeton Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1989.
Westminster Confession of Faith and Catechisms. Willow Grove, PA: The Committee on Christian Education of the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, Reprint, 2008.
White, Henry A. Southern Presbyterian Leaders 1683-1911. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, Reprint, 2000.
Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2021 – All Rights Reserved
“And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us, and we have seen his glory, glory as of the only Son from the Father, full of grace and truth.” John 1:14
Here are Dr. Martin Luther’s comments on John 1:14…
“The greatest treasure and the highest comfort we Christians have is the fact that the Word, the true, natural Son of God, has become a man who in every respect has flesh and blood as any other man has, and who has become man for our sake that we may be raised to the great glory of having our flesh and blood, our entire body, with all its parts and members, sit in heaven above, like God; that we may boldly defy the devil and whatever assails us. For now we are certain that our bodies belong in heaven and are heirs of the kingdom of heaven.”
Martin Luther, Sermon on John 1:14 (Weimar Edition, 46)
Martin Luther celebrates Christmas with his family and friends
Who was John Calvin? Many Christians today have distinct impressions of who John Calvin was, but most have never read a single line from his Institutes of the Christian Religion, or benefited from the careful exegesis found in his Commentaries on the Bible, or reflected upon a single salient point from one of his many published sermons. In brief, it must be noted that the reformer John Calvin (1509-1564) has often been misinterpreted, misread, and misunderstood. He is, perhaps, best known for his views on the doctrines of election, predestination, and reprobation. He is also known for his pivotal role in the prosecution of the arch-heretic Michael Servetus (1511-1553) who rejected the Trinity and the deity of Jesus Christ. But, none of these disconnected pieces of information can demonstrate, in my opinion, the true character of the man. And so, who really was John Calvin? Hughes O. Old, a noted scholar of Calvin’s life and theology, states the opinion that, “John Calvin is chiefly remembered as a biblical scholar and a systematic theologian.” (Old, “John Calvin,” in Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith, 45-48) While it is clear that Calvin distinguished himself through his theological writing and teaching ministry, he also, however, was the preeminent pastor of the city of Geneva during the time of the Protestant Reformation. John T. McNeill notes,
“The office of a true and faithful minister is not only publicly to teach the people over whom he is ordained pastor, but as far as may be, to admonish, exhort, rebuke and console each one in particular.” So wrote John Calvin in a section on Visitation of the Sick in his Liturgy. This is traditional and scriptural language, but Calvin gave to it rare emphasis in many utterances and in the organization of the Church in Geneva. Jean Daniel Benoit, the expert on Calvin’s work in the cure of souls, states boldly that the Genevan Reformer was more pastor than theologian, that, to be exact, he was a theologian in order to be a better pastor. In his whole reforming work he was a shepherd of souls.
McNeill, A History of the Cure of Souls, 197-198
Thus, it was Calvin’s role as a “shepherd of souls” that serves as the best lens by which to explain his indefatigable preaching, his voluminous writings, and his strenuous efforts at reforming the City of Geneva according to the Word of God.
HIS EARLY YEARS: BIRTH AND PREPARATION (1509-1531)
1509 – Jean Cauvin is born July 10, 1509 in Noyon, France; he was the second of six children born in the Cauvin family.
1513 – Jean’s mother, Jeanne, suddenly dies when he is just 4 years old; his father, Gerard, remarries
1521 – with his father’s help on May 19th the young Jean Cauvin, a budding scholar, receives a generous financial benefice from the altar of Gesine in the Cathedral of Noyon
1523 – in August he is sent by his father, Gerard, to study at the prestigious University of Paris (14 years old)
1526 – the young Jean Cauvin changes his name to reflect his growing ability and expertise in Latin–he becomes known as Johannes Calvinus
John Calvin’s signature
1528 – Calvin finishes his Bachelor of Arts degree from the College de Montaigu in the University of Paris early in 1528 (18 years old)
1528 – Calvin is sent by his father to study law at the University of Orleans
1529 – Calvin moves to the University of Bourges to study law under the fiery Italian jurist, Alciat; here he begins a lifetime study of NT Greek
1531 – on May 26th Calvin’s father dies, allowing him to return to the University of Paris to study the Bible and Christian theology
IN PARIS: HIS THEOLOGICAL TURNING-POINT (1531-1533)
1531 – Calvin enrolls at the College de France studying Greek, Hebrew, the Bible, Church History, and Theology
1532 – He returns briefly in May to the University of Orleans and graduates with a degree in law, the Juris Doctorate
1532 – Calvin experiences a “sudden conversion” (the exact date is uncertain, but the change in his life is profound and lasting)
1533 – on November 1st Nicolas Cop, Calvin’s friend from Noyon, preaches his inaugural address as the new Rector of the University of Paris; but immediately flees Paris in the ensuing controversy over his evangelical message
1533 – following this Calvin is associated with the fugitive Nicholas Cop and he flees Paris dressed as a farmer
IN FLIGHT: ON THE ROAD AS A FUGITIVE (1534)
1534 – “Calvin’s Wartburg”: during the cold and lengthy Winter months Calvin lays the foundations for the Institutes of the Christian Religion inLouis du Tillet’s library in Angouleme, France
1534 – on May 4th Calvin returns to Noyon and formally resigns his benefices breaking with Roman Catholicism (imprisoned for a short time?)
1534 – The “Affair of the Placards” occurs on the night of October 17-18th with an ensuing persecution by King Francis I of many French Evangelicals (Huguenots); sadly Calvin loses several close friends
IN BASLE: WRITING THE IMMORTAL “INSTITUTES” (1535-1536)
1535 – in January Calvin is safely dwelling in Protestant Basle with the Reformer Oswald Myconius
1536 – on March 21 a theological disputation lead by Guillame Farel and Pierre Viret results in the City of Geneva deciding for the Reformation; the Roman Catholic Bishop, monks, and nuns depart
1536 – in March Calvin publishes his “little book,” the Institutes of the Christian Religion (1st edition), in Basle
Here is my well-worn copy of the Institutes of the Christian Religion (5th edition) and a devotional commentary on the Institutes by my doctoral mentor, Dr. David B. Calhoun
IN GENEVA: THE FIRST REFORMATION (1536-1538)
Guillame Farel
1536 – Calvin detours to Geneva in July—he plans to stay just one night, but is strongly persuaded by Guillame Farel to remain in Protestant Geneva as a co-worker and fellow Reformer
1536 – on September 5th Calvin is hired as a “sacarum literarum doctor” by the City Council of Geneva to teach the Bible
1536 – on November 10th the Genevan Confession, written by Calvin, is formally adopted by the City Council of Geneva
1537 – in January a Protestant Statement of Faith is presented to the City Council of Geneva; all of the citizens raise their right hands and pledge agreement
1538 – on April 25th, after a growing dissension regarding the Lord’s Supper, the three ministers of the city, Farel, Calvin, & Coralt, are suddenly banished from Geneva for not being willing to serve the Lord’s Supper
IN STRASBOURG: PASTOR, TEACHER, WRITER (1538-1541)
Martin Bucer
1538 – in the spring Calvin flees from Geneva and travels through Berne and Zurich; he settles in Strasbourg with the Reformer Martin Bucer
1539 – in August Calvin replies to the letter written by Bishop Jacopo Sadolet’s seeking to convince Geneva to return to Roman Catholicism
1540 – in March Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Epistle of the Romans in Strasbourg
1540 – on August 6th Calvin marries the widow Idelette de Bure in Strasbourg
BACK TO GENEVA: THE YEARS OF STRUGGLE (1541-1548)
Idelette Calvin
1541 – after many unsuccessful invitations from the City Council to return to Geneva, Calvin finally arrives in Geneva on September 13
1541 – on November 20th the “Ordannances Ecclesiastiques” are established in Geneva to bring order and reform to the Genevan Church
1542 – the birth and death (July 28th) of John and Idelette Calvin’s son—”Jacques”
1543 – the establishment of the “Libertines” (enfants de Geneve) in Geneva
1543 – a plague rages in Geneva; the City Council votes to remove Calvin from “plague duty” even though he is willing to serve
1543 – in December a conflict erupts with Sebastian Castellio over his qualifications for ministry in Geneva—he was not accepted and leaves Geneva
1544 – on May 30th Sebastian Castellio returns and interrupts the weekly Pastor’s Bible study, Le Congregation, over the question of his ministerial qualifications; he is rejected and bitterly resolves to make trouble for Calvin
1545 – on April 8th Pierre Ameaux is sentenced to public repentance for libeling Calvin and the Genevan Church
1546 – on January 24th Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Epistle of 1 Corinthians in Geneva
1546 – in February Michael Servetus begins correspondence with John Calvin on a multitude of theological subjects—these letters are later printed, without Calvin’s approval, in Servetus’ heretical book (1553)
1546 – problems with the wife of Ami Perrin erupt over public dancing
1546 – on August 1st Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Epistle of 2 Corinthians in Geneva
1547 – on June 27th a letter threatening Calvin was found attached to the pulpit at St. Pierre Cathedral
1547 – after an investigation, Jacques Gruet, the author, confesses his guilt and is sentenced by the Genevan City Council to suffer death by beheading on July 26th; his crime is sedition against the city and the church
1548 – on February 1st Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Epistles of Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, & Colossians in Geneva
1548 – on July 25th Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Epistles of 1 Timothy and 2 Timothy in Geneva
IN THE CRUCIBLE: SEVERE TRIALS IN GENEVA (1549-1555)
Pierre Viret
1549 – in February Ami Perrin, leader of the Libertines, is chosen as the first Syndic of the Genevan City Council
1549 – on March 29th, Idelette, Calvin’s beloved wife dies after a brief illness; he is heartbroken, but is consoled by his dear friend, Pierre Viret the minister of Lausanne, Switzerland
1550 – Calvin publishes Institutes of the Christian Religion (4th edition) in Geneva
1551 – Calvin publishes his Commentary on James, 1 and 2 Peter, 1 John, and Jude in Geneva
1553 – on January 1st Calvin publishes his Commentary on John in Geneva and dedicates it to the syndics and City Council of Geneva
Michael Servetus
1553 – in January Michael Servetus’s heretical book, Christianismi Restitutio, is secretly printed in Lyon; he is discovered, tried, and imprisoned by the Roman Catholic Inquisition
1553 – Michael Servetus escapes his prison cell in Lyon and is drawn to Geneva “like a moth to light” to justify his theology before Calvin. Key Question: was Servetus recruited by the Libertines to threaten and displace Calvin?
1553 – on August 13th Michael Servetus is recognized and arrested after attending public worship at St. Pierre Cathedral in Geneva
1553 – on September 3rd a crisis at the Lord’s Supper is narrowly averted when Calvin steadfastly refuses to serve any who have been excommunicated
1553 – after a lengthy trial by the City Council, Michael Servetus, is found guilty of heresy and executed by burning on the Plain Palais on October 27th
1555 – on January 24th the City Council of Geneva formally adopts the “Ordannances Ecclesiastiques” written by Calvin
1555 – on May 16th a public riot instigated by the “Libertines” utterly fails and the key leaders are arrested or flee the city
Calvin barring the Libertines from the Lord’s Table as “the despisers of sacred ordinances”
IN GENEVA: THE YEARS OF TRIUMPH (1555-1564)
Theodore Beza
1555 – on August 1st Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Synoptic Gospels in Geneva
1557 – on July 22nd Calvin publishes his Commentary on the Psalms in Geneva
1559 – on June 5th the Genevan Academy is founded with Theodore Beza as Rector
1559 – on August 1st Calvin publishes his penultimate version of the Institutes of the Christian Religion (5th edition) in Geneva; it consists of eighty chapters in four thick volumes
1560 – the Geneva Bible, with notes written on key verses under Calvin’s supervision, is published in Geneva
1562 – the Genevan Psalter is published in Geneva, with metrical tunes written by Clement Marot and Theodore Beza for all 150 Psalms
1564 – on February 6th Calvin appears for the last time in the pulpit of St. Pierre’s Cathedral
Calvin’s simple grave at Geneva
1564 – on May 27th John Calvin dies in his own bed at Geneva; he is buried per his wishes with a simple grave in the city cemetery
1564 – Theodore Beza, Calvin’s chosen successor, writes his Life of Calvin & posthumously publishes Calvin’s Commentary on Joshua
Books for Further Research:
John Calvin in his maturity
Beeke, Joel R., David W. Hall, Michael A. G. Haykin. Theology Made Practical: New Studies on John Calvin and His Legacy. Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2017.
Benoit, Jean-Daniel. “Pastoral Care of the Prophet.” In John Calvin Contemporary Prophet. Edited by Jacob T. Hoogstra. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1959.
Beza, Theodore. “The Life of John Calvin.”In Selected Works of John Calvin: Tracts and Letters. Edited and translated by Henry Beveridge. Volume 1. Originally published in Edinburgh by the Calvin Translation Society, 1844; reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1983.
Bucer, Martin. Concerning the Care of Souls. Translated by Peter Beale. Strasbourg, 1538; Reprint edition, Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2009.
Calvin, John. Calvin’s Commentaries. 46 vols. Various translators. Edinburgh: Calvin Translation Society, 1847-55; reprint edition in 22 volumes, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1998.
Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Edited by John T. McNeill. Translated by Ford Lewis Battles. 2 vols. Library of Christian Classics, no. 20-21. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1960.
Calvin, John. Letters of John Calvin. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Calvin, John. Selected Works of John Calvin: Tracts and Letters. 7 volumes. Co-edited by Henry Beveridge and Jules Bonnet. Originally published in Edinburgh by the Calvin Translation Society, 1851; reprint, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1983.
Calvin, John. The Necessity of Reforming the Church. Reprint, Dallas, TX: Protestant Heritage Press, 1995.
de Greef, Wulfert. The Writings of John Calvin: An Introductory Guide, Expanded Edition. Lyle D. Bierma, trans. Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2008.
Dillenberger, John, ed. John Calvin: Selections from His Writings. Scholar’s Press, American Academy of Religion, 1975.
Gordon, Bruce. Calvin. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009.
Hughes, Philip E., ed. and trans. The Register of the Company of Pastors of Geneva in the Time of Calvin. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1966.
McKim, Donald ed. Encyclopedia of the Reformed Faith. Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1992.
“Beza, Theodore,” by Philip C. Holtrop
“Bucer, Martin,” by David F. Wright
“Calvin, John,” by Hughes O. Old
“Ecclesiastical Ordinances,” by Robert D. Linder
“Farel, William,” by Charles Partee
“Geneva Academy,” by Robert M. Kingdon
“Geneva Bible,” by Dan G. Danner
“Geneva Catechism,” by Charles Partee
“Geneva Company of Pastors,” by Robert M. Kingdon
“Geneva Consistory,” by Robert M. Kingdon
“Institutes of the Christian Religion,” by Hughes O. Old
“Ordination,” by Thomas D. Parker
“Preaching, History of,” by Hughes O. Old
“Psalmody,” by LindaJo H. McKim
“Predestination,” by Dewey D. Wallace, Jr.
“Servetus, Michael” by Nathan P. Feldmeth
“Viret, Pierre” by Robert D. Linder
McNeill, John T. A History of the Cure of Souls. New York, NY: Harper Brothers Publishers, 1951.
Monter, E. William. Calvin’s Geneva. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1967; Reprint, Huntington, NY: Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company, 1975.
Parker, T. H. L. Portrait of Calvin. Philadelphia: The Westminster Press, 1954.
Reymond, Robert L. John Calvin: His Life and Influence. Ross-shire, Great Britain: Christian Focus Publications, 2004.
Selderhuis, Herman J. John Calvin: A Pilgrim’s Life. Translated by Albert Gootjes. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2009.
Stickelberger, Emanuel. Calvin: A Life. Translated by David Georg Gelzer. London: James Clarke & Company, 1959.
Wallace, Ronald. Calvin, Geneva, and the Reformation: A Study of Calvin as Social Worker, Churchman, Pastor and Theologian. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1988 and Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1990.
Books full of Calvin’s sermons and a tract on God’s Providence
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2020 – All Rights Reserved
Berthoud, Jean-Marc. Authority in the Christian Life. R. A. Sheets, trans. Monticello, FL: Psalm 78 Ministries, 2020. [152 pages]
Reviewed by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Jean-Marc Berthoud
During the time of the Reformation God raised-up the Reformers to recover the true Gospel and to rekindle a love for God’s Law. We all know their names: Martin Luther, Martin Bucer, Pierre Viret, John Calvin, Theodore Beza, and John Knox. These men established biblical principles of how Christians properly relate to the authorities of this world. Mankind, though, is forever seeking to promote independence from God’s Law and all human authorities. This selfish effort only results in lawlessness, rebellion, and judgment. Now at this time of radical social upheaval, God is raising-up another spokesman, Jean-Marc Berthoud of Lausanne, Switzerland, to trumpet aloud the need for a sober reevaluation of the extent and limits of human authority. One of the most important themes of this volume, in my opinion, is its clear emphasis on how human authorities are responsible to God to be just and upright. When they are not, then they fall under God’s judgment and are likely to be removed by the “lesser powers.” It is not the responsibility of the individual to avenge wrongdoing, but God’s responsibility. Jean-Marc Berthoud forcefully writes,
By avenging ourselves, by rendering evil for evil, we are strengthening the self-justification of the one who is unjust to us. By patiently bearing with injustice, and by even rendering good for evil, we labor to defuse the self-justification of the wicked and awaken his hardened conscience. We are working toward God’s conversion of the wicked. It is through repentance and regeneration, not mob action and revolution, that God changes injustice into justice.
Jean-Marc Berthoud, Authority in the christian life, 29
Thus, he encourages Christians everywhere to advance the Kingdom of God on earth by utilizing spiritual weapons rather than by physical conflict. In brief, he urges Christians to not fall into the revolutionary patterns of the mob, but to submit themselves to God and trust Him to make all things right. Moreover, Jean-Marc Berthoud thoughtfully provides a number of practical scenarios to illustrate the principles he puts forward in this volume—for the businessman, the doctor or nurse, the policeman, the magistrate, the soldier, the teacher, and the church leader. Finally, he deals with the subject of church discipline and delineates between the separated powers of the magistrate and the leaders of the church. This is biblical exposition and theological analysis at its finest.
I highly recommend this slender paperback volume. It can be purchased directly from the publisher at Psalm 78 Ministries (www.psalm78ministries.com), or on Amazon. Read the book!
