The deep verdant green of the Irish countryside is so breathtakingly beautiful!
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
“The Lord is my helper; I will not fear; what can man do to me?” Hebrews 13:6
Sometimes a person’s life gets “interrupted” by an event that they did not expect. That certainly happened to Patrick (AD c.389-c.463). When he was just sixteen years old Patrick was suddenly kidnapped by Irish sea-raiders, taken away from his home in England, and sold as a slave. If that difficulty happened to you, you might think that God had somehow “abandoned” you. Patrick would learn, however, that the Lord is in control of all events and that even terrible things that we can’t fully explain are used for “good” in the Christian’s life. God promises in the Bible, “…we know that for those who love God all things work together for good” (Rom. 8:28). This means that we can trust God in the midst of our trials and tribulations. And so, what happened to Patrick now that he was forced to be a slave in Ireland? In God’s providence what “good” could possibly come from all of this?
This flock of sheep is much like the ones that Patrick carefully shepherded on Skerry Hill
Here is what happened: Once Patrick was sold as a slave, his new master, Michlu, assigned him to work as a shepherd caring for the livestock. He was given a couple of Irish wolfhounds—huge and fierce dogs—to help protect the sheep, hogs, and cows from ravaging wolves. Patrick learned how to manage these dogs by speaking to them in Gaelic, the common language of the Irish people. The dogs learned to trust him, and he learned to trust them—they were a team in protecting the livestock from the wolves. The wolves were especially dangerous during the winter months when in hunger they would attack the livestock. Most times the shepherds were successful at protecting the livestock, but at other times the fierce wolves would be able to carry away the younger members of the flock. Patrick served as a shepherd for six long years. Nevertheless, he always dreamed of returning to his own family in England. One day, he came up with a plan and with the aide of a friend he set in motion his escape from captivity.
This picture gives the reader some idea of the sheer size of an Irish Wolfhound!
Leaving in the middle of the night he made his way down to the seashore where he planned to flee from Ireland by ship. No one, though, was willing to take him! He noticed that one ship was transporting a cargo of Irish wolfhounds. The sailors found them to be completely unmanageable. Patrick volunteered to care for them. To demonstrate his abilities, he calmed the wild and restless dogs by speaking to them in Gaelic. He also urged the Captain to arrange for their feeding. The dogs calmed down under Patrick’s care and he was taken aboard as a welcome passenger on the ship. Initially he was transported to Spain, but then over time he made his way back to England. What joy it was to be back at home with his father and mother!
Over the next several years he experienced a reoccurring dream—a voice would say in Gaelic, “Holy Boy, we beseech you to come and walk among us once more.” Patrick understood this to mean that God was calling him to return to Ireland—not to give himself up as a runaway slave, but to minister to the Irish people as a Missionary-Evangelist. After lots of study, prayer, and preparation the church leaders called him to that very task—to take the gospel to Ireland. When Patrick finally arrived in Ireland he was 42 years old (AD 432); this is what happened,
“…the ship landed off the coast of Dublin. Dublin was not a great city then—it was merely a village. But it was the capital of the province of Wicklow, and it was ruled by a king named Dichu. Again the ship was anchored, and again Patrick and his crew were rowed ashore. “Let us walk to the top of the hill that I see a mile away,” Patrick said. “From there we can see all of this part of the country.” As they walked toward the hill, they saw a group of men waiting there. Then the silence of the morning was shattered by the angry growling of dogs. The sound struck terror in the hearts of Patrick’s companions. Four dogs rushed down the hill toward the defenseless men who carried no swords—merely pilgrim’s staffs.”
“Patrick stood there calmly while the others dropped to their knees in fright. Surely, they thought, these wild dogs would tear them to bits. The dogs—huge, fierce Irish wolfhounds—were snarling as they rushed toward Patrick and his group of frightened men. Then Patrick’s clear voice rang out. He talked to the dogs as he had once talked to the dogs which had helped him guard the swine on Skerry Hill. He talked to them as he had talked to the dogs on Captain Tigras’ ship. And the dogs, hearing the familiar commands in the language they understood, stopped snarling. When Patrick gave a sharp command, they halted. Patrick walked toward them, talking soothingly to them. The dogs dropped to the ground. They whimpered and crawled toward Patrick, and then they arose and licked his outstretched hand.”
A Celtic Cross–clearly symbolizes the sacrificial death of Christ and the compelling testimony of the four Gospels
“The men on the hill had watched all this in amazement. Among them was Dichu, the king, who had taught the dogs to kill his enemies. To Dichu, any strangers who landed on these shores were enemies. But instead of tearing these enemies to bits, the dogs were now allowing themselves to be patted on the head by the leader of this band of strangers. Dichu led his men down the hill. “Who are you?” he asked curiously. Patrick told him. He also told him why he had come to Ireland. “But don’t you know, Patrick,” Dichu said, “that many kings in Ireland have vowed to kill you if you are indeed the one spoken of in the prophecy?” Patrick nodded. “Of course I know that, but I have faith in God.” “Do you believe that your God can protect you against the swords of the Irish kings?” Dichu asked. Patrick smiled. “That is a small thing for God to do,” he said. “I know very little about your God,” Dichu admitted. “I should like to know more. Will you and your band stay with me awhile, and will you tell me of this God of yours?”
— Quentin Reynolds, The Life of Saint Patrick, 131-133
One artist’s depiction of Patrick
Over the next thirty years (AD 432-463) Patrick faithfully shared the gospel with the people of Ireland. Sadly, they were enslaved to idols (false gods) and to evil spirits (demons). The Lord Jesus slowly began to deliver them from their unbelief, forgiving their sins, and giving them new life in Christ. One biographer notes that Patrick was busy “…sowing belief until he brought all the Ulstermen by the net of the gospel to the harbor of life.” In God’s wonderful providence all of the trials and tribulations of Patrick’s life actually equipped him for service as a Missionary-Evangelist to the Irish people. This outcome was the “good” that God had prepared him for. Due to his bold and clear preaching multitudes of Irish people professed their faith in Christ, thousands of baptisms took place, and many churches were established throughout the land. In short, the gospel message went forward in Ireland with great power!
Even though this particular Irish Celtic Church lays in ruins–the Christian faith lives on in Ireland! Jesus declared, “…the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.” (Matt. 16:18b)
Resources for Further Study:
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History: An Illustrated Account of 20 Centuries of Christ’s Power. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Marshall, Catharine T. “Patrick: Missionary to the Irish” in Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Edited by John D. Woodbridge. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Neill, Stephen. A History of Christian Missions. Second Edition. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1986.
Olsen, Ted. Christianity and the Celts. Downers Grove, Il: InterVarsity Press, 2003
Reynolds, Quentin. The Life of Saint Patrick. In the “Landmark Series.” New York, NY: Random House Publishers, 1955.
Swanson, Kevin, ed. “Patrick’s Confessions and Breastplate” in Great Christian Classics: Five Remarkable Narratives of the Faith. Parker, CO: Generations with Vision, 2010.
Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved
“The LORD says to my Lord: ‘Sit at my right hand, until I make your enemies your footstool’.” Psalm 110:1
Over the past two weeks as I was preparing to preach on the Ascension of Jesus Christ into heaven (Acts 1:4-11), I came across these two very fine quotes from Dr. Cornelis Venema on “The Session of Christ.” Essentially, the term “Session” (Lat. sessio = a sitting) refers to how Jesus Christ now reigns in heaven over the Kingdom of God here on earth. When Jesus ascended into heaven and sat down at the right hand of God, he not only finished his public ministry (as a Prophet), completed his saving work on the Cross (as a Priest), but he also began to reign over his kingdom (as a King). Moreover, during this time between the resurrection of Christ and the return of Christ the Kingdom of God is growing and expanding (Matt. 13:31-33; Matt. 16:18). In addition, Christ’s enemies are being defeated and the gospel message is spreading throughout the entire world (Matt. 12:29; Luke 10:17-18; John 12:31-32). There may be times of discouragement in life when we lose all hope and can’t see it’s growth. Yet the promise of the Bible is that the Kingdom of God is “in the midst” of us (Luke 17:20-21). Dr. Venema capably expands on these thoughts with these two quotes:
Dr. Cornelis P. Venema
“Just as Christ fulfills all of the Old Testament promises (2 Cor. 1:20), Christ also guarantees the future consummation of all God’s promises by his resurrection from the dead, session at the Father’s right hand, and outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost. These events are disclosed in the New Testament as end-time events, that is, events which mark a decisive turning point in history. These events signal that Christ has been given all authority in heaven and on earth and will reign until all things have been subject to him, including death, the last enemy (1 Cor. 15:25-26). By his resurrection from the dead, Christ has become the ‘first fruits’ of all who will through union with him share in his victory. By his session at the Father’s hand, Christ has been given the keys to unlock God’s plan for history until he is revealed at the ‘last day.’ And by his outpouring of the Holy Spirit, he has entered into the last and most decisive epoch in his church-gathering work which, once completed, will serve to prepare all things for his coming again.”
— Venema, The Promise of the Future, 8-9
Dr. Venema further explains,
“The biblical revelation regarding the future, therefore, always fixes our attention upon Christ. Just as God’s ways with his people in history in times past have all met in Christ, so all of his ways in the future will meet in Christ. The great event on the horizon of the future, in biblical perspective, is accordingly the event of Christ’s return or ‘Second Coming’. This event is the great future toward which all history is moving. It is the event that gives meaning to present history and which will consummate God’s work of redemption. the entirety of the biblical teaching about the future is intimately linked to the coming of Christ at the end of the present age.”
— Venema, The Promise of the Future, 9
These words–and all of the Scripture passages that back them up–give me hope. All that Jesus said would happen regarding his death and resurrection have come to pass. And now that he reigns over his kingdom (i.e. in his “Session”) we can be confident that it will be fully consummated upon his return. Alleluia!
— Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Resources for Further Study:
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. 1st Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1984.
“Ascension of Christ” by Alexander Ross
“Kingdom of Christ, God, Heaven” by George E. Ladd
“Millennium, Views of the” by Robert G. Clouse
“Offices of Christ” by Robert L. Reymond
“Session” by David H. Wheaton
“States of Jesus Christ” by Wayne A. Grudem
Venema, Cornelis P. The Promise of the Future. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2000.
Venema, Cornelis P. “The Four Main Millennial Views” in These Last Days: A Christian View of History. Edited by Richard D. Phillips and Gabriel N. E. Fluhrer. Co-Published by the Alliance of Confessing Evangelicals (Philadelphia, PA); and P&R Publishing (Phillipsburg, NJ), 2011.
“And when he had said these things, as they were looking on, he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight.” Acts 1:9
Just last week on Ascension Day (May 29, 2025) I had the opportunity to preach at our church, Redeemer Presbyterian Church (PCA) here in Austin, TX. We have four pastors at Redeemer, and since I am the one who is “semi-retired” I usually preach once or twice a year. Instead, my role at the church is focused on teaching. I regularly instruct adults in our School of Discipleship classes on Sunday mornings. Beyond that, I am the director of Redeemer Theological Academy teaching college-level courses in Biblical studies, Systematic Theology, and Church History. This suits me quite well, and I am grateful to focus my energies on teaching at this point in life. Nonetheless, below is an audio file of my recent sermon. Also, you will find an introduction to the text and my notes.
* * * * * * * * * *
Introduction: The Ascension of Jesus Christ into Heaven is often overlooked. We take note of Jesus’ birth on Christmas day, his betrayal on Maundy Thursday, his death on Good Friday, and his bodily resurrection on Easter Sunday. But somehow the Ascension gets passed by with barely a notice. Why is this particular event in the life of Jesus so important? Here are a few thoughts to consider: When Jesus ascends into Heaven (1) it is the fulfillment of the promise of the coming of the Holy Spirit; (2) it is the formal establishment of the Kingdom of God (not a physical Kingdom, but a spiritual one); (3) it is the beginning of Jesus’ role as an intercessor for his people; (4) it is the acceptance of Jesus’ atoning work by the Father; and (5) it is a pledge that Jesus will return in the same way in which he departed. Thus, the Ascension is like “a hinge” upon which all of these events swing. Let us, then, acknowledge the glorious significance of Jesus’ ascent into Heaven.
Here is my outline plus a few of the additional Bible verses that I referred to in this sermon:
1. The Promise of the Holy Spirit, (vs. 4-5) — Luke 24:49; John 14:26 and 16:7
2. The Establishment of the Kingdom of God, (vs. 6-7) — Amos 9:11: Luke 17:20-21
3. The Beginning of Jesus’ Role as an Intercessor, (vs. 8) — Hebrews 7:25 and 9:24
4. The Acceptance of Jesus’ Saving Work, (vs. 9) — 1 Timothy 3:16; Psalm 110:1; 1 John 2:1
5. The Pledge of Jesus’ Future Return, (vs. 10-11) — Luke 24:30-31; Matthew 24:30-31; Daniel 7:13-14
Here is an audio file of my sermon: I hope you enjoy it!
— Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven
These three volumes really blessed me in my sermon preparation–they have great insights!
“Therefore, since we have been justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ.” Romans 5:1
Rev. G. I. Williamson (1925-2023)
“One of the basic errors of Roman Catholicism is confusion of justification and sanctification, that is, between legal and inherent righteousness. Rome teaches that at certain times (such as immediately after baptism, or reception of one of the other sacraments) a person is “just.” What is meant, however, is that the person is actually made internally holy and not just legally righteous before God. This holiness, according to Rome, can then be partially or even totally destroyed by sin, venial or mortal. A person may cease to be just. He must again be justified through sacramental grace. And on it goes in a constant cycle. Sin nullifies sacramental grace, and then sacramental grace nullifies sin. This is a doctrine that gives no peace (see Rom. 5:1). One can never be certain of his standing with God. But more than this, it does not make sense. For if sacramental grace actually produced inward holiness, then why would that person ever sin again? If justification meant perfect inward holiness, then there could be no further sin, because a “perfect tree will bring forth perfect fruit” (see Luke 6:43-45). This difficulty is removed when we distinguish between justification and sanctification. In justification the sinner is once and for all declared holy, legally absolved from all guilt and punishment of sin, whether original or actual, past or future. In sanctification the sinner is gradually and progressively purged of all pollution and practice of sin, so that sin is progressively weakened (in the long run), and inherent holiness becomes progressively stronger, until finally the person becomes (at death) actually as righteous as he has long been legally.”
— Rev. G. I. Williamson, The Westminster Confession of Faith: For Study Classes, 142
These wise words from G. I. Williamson give me an eternal hope! I can trust that the justification provided by Jesus Christ is completely sufficient for the pardon of all of my sins. Based upon that new reality, I can live by faith as one who actively seeks after holiness. All of this is based upon the clear teachings of the Bible, and not just upon the ever-changing “traditions of men.” Praise be to God!
— Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Resources for Further Study:
Williamson, G. I. The Westminster Confession of Faith: For Study Classes. Second Edition. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2004.
You might also consider…
Barrett, Matthew, ed. The Doctrine on Which the Church Stands or Falls: Justification in Biblical, Theological, Historical, and Pastoral Perspective. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2019.
McGrath, Allister E. Justification by Faith: What It Means to Us Today. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1988.
Sproul, R. C. Faith Alone: The Evangelical Doctrine of Justification. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1995.
Martin Luther makes his bold defense before Charles 5th and the Papal legate at Worms
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
“Our God is a refuge and a strength, a very present help in trouble.” Psalm 46:1
Over five hundred years ago, Martin Luther was ordered by Charles 5th, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, to travel to Worms, Germany to make his defense. He was given a promise of “safe conduct” to and from the gathering (or Diet). His friends reminded him, though, of how John Huss had been given a similar promise over a hundred years before, but was betrayed and lost his life (1417). With that ominous threat in mind Luther had to be careful as he traveled the long road to Worms in his oxen-drawn carriage. He felt fear at the prospect of dying in the flames while chained to a stake. But he also felt that it would be a privilege to die for the sake of his Lord Jesus Christ. Once he arrived at Worms (on April 16, 1521), it was demanded that Luther reject all of his books and recant the truths he had discovered from his studies in the Bible. Under the extreme pressure of the moment, he asked for a day to think it over. This was granted. After spending an anguished night of prayer and reflection in a high tower he refused to recant and the next morning he made the following courageous speech:
Emperor Charles 5th
“Since Your Majesty and your lordships desire a simple reply, I will answer without horns and without teeth. Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason—I do not accept the authority of popes or councils, for they have contradicted each other—my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. May God help me, Amen.”
— Roland Bainton, Here I Stand, 144
Luther was abruptly dismissed from the gathering by the emperor, and it appeared that he had emerged victorious from the Diet of Worms. He began his travel home to Wittenberg on April 26, 1521 trusting that he would be able to return to his studies and to his eager students. Unknown to Luther, however, ten days after he departed the emperor declared him to be a criminal and a heretic (May 6, 1521). He ordered that Luther be captured and held for future judgment. Luther’s friends, though, had a different plan. Anticipating what might happen, they schemed to get him away from all of his enemies to a place of safety and thereby preserve his life. The famous historian of the Reformation, Dr. J. H. Merle D’Aubigne, gives us the details of what happened on that fateful day:
“On the following day he resumed his journey, accompanied by Amsdorf and his brother James. In these lonely spots the reformer’s lot was to be decided. They were passing along the forest of Thuringia, on the road to Waltershausen, As the carriage was in a hollow part of the road…a sudden noise was heard, and at that moment five horsemen, masked and in complete armor, rushed upon the travelers. Luther’s brother, as soon as he perceived the assailants, leapt from the vehicle, and ran off at full speed without uttering a word. The driver was for defending himself. “Stop!” cried one of the assailants in a stern voice, and rushing upon him threw him to the ground. A second man in a mask seized Amsdorf, and prevented him from coming near. Meanwhile the three other horsemen laid hold of Luther, keeping the most profound silence. They pulled him violently from the carriage, threw a horseman’s cloak upon his shoulders and placed him on a led horse. Then the other two quitted Amsdorf and the driver, and the whole leapt into their saddles. The hat of one of them fell off, but they did not even stop to lift it, and in a twinkling disappeared in the dark forest with their prisoner. They at first took the road to Broderode; but they soon retraced their steps by a different road, and, without quitting the forest, made turnings and windings in all directions, in order to deceive those who might attempt to follow their track…nightfall having made it impossible to follow their track, the party carrying off Luther took a new direction, and about an hour before midnight arrived at the foot of a mountain. The horses climbed slowly to its summit, on which stood an old fortress, surrounded on all sides, except that of the entrance, by the black forests which cover the mountains of Thuringia. To this elevated and isolated castle, named the Wartburg…was Luther conducted.”
— D’Aubigne, The History of the Reformation, Book VII, 214
News of Luther’s kidnapping quickly spread throughout the countryside. Some people were delighted, while others responded with anguished feelings of grief and sorrow. They did not know if Martin Luther was dead or alive! But rather than being captured by his enemies, Luther had actually been kidnapped by his friends! The supportive German Prince, Frederick of Saxony, arranged for Luther’s “kidnapping” by his trustworthy knights in order to protect him from the vengeful Roman Catholic authorities.
The Wartburg–Martin Luther referred to this remote mountain refuge as “My Patmos”
Luther as “Junker George”
For almost a year Luther lay hidden in “The Wartburg” under the false name, Junker George (or “George the Knight”). During this time he grew a beard and carried a large sword to complete the disguise. Rather than remain idle, or feel sorry for himself, he used this time of concealment well and wrote a large number of pamphlets defending the doctrines he had discovered in the Bible. Moreover, he began work on translating the entire New Testament into German (completed in 1522). Finally, he wrote many stirring hymns of which “A Mighty Fortress is our God” is the best known. It has been reported that while watching the smoke rise from many peasant campfires in the valley far below, Luther became discouraged by intense feelings of loneliness and despair. A fresh wind, though, suddenly arose and blew all the smoke away. He was greatly encouraged by this sight and rejoiced that the Lord can remove our own fears and doubts as easily as the wind can blow away smoke. Indeed, “Our God is a refuge and a strength, a very present help in trouble.” Psalm 46:1
Resources for Further Study:
Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1950.
D’Aubigne, J. H. Merle. The History of the Reformation. Originally Published in 1872; Powder Spring, GA: Powder Springs Press, Facsimile Edition, 2008.
Hildebrand, Hans J., ed. The Reformation: A Narrative History. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, 1964.
Kittleson, James M. Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and his Career. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1986.
Rupp, Gordon. Luther’s Progress to the Diet of Worms 1521. London, England: SCM Press Ltd., 1951.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved
“For with you is the fountain of life; in your light do we see light.” Psalm 36:9
Introduction:
There are many significant Reformers who the Lord raised-up during the time of the Reformation. I am going to focus, however, on the four Reformers who made the most important contributions towards the growth and development of a thorough-going Protestant theology–Martin Luther, William Tyndale, John Calvin, and John Knox. These four church leaders emphasized the sovereignty of God, the utter sinfulness of humanity, the centrality of God’s justifying grace in salvation, the necessity of preaching the Bible, the proper administration of the Sacraments (Baptism and the Lord’s Supper), and a church structure based on the Bible (i.e. Elder-led). As a long-time Presbyterian Minister (since 1980), I am also extraordinarily interested in the development of European Presbyterianism. It is the foundation of Presbyterianism in America and throughout the entire world, To put it succinctly, this article will be a brief summary of the lives and ministries of four Reformers from 30,000 feet!
Setting the Stage: Why was the Reformation necessary?
The coat of arms and motto of Geneva, Switzerland
The central reason why the Reformation was necessary was for the recovery of the gospel. Without it, the church had become a place of darkness. The motto for the city of Geneva, Switzerland during the Reformation explains this viewpoint well; it declared, Post Tenebras Lux (Lat. “after darkness, light!”). Moreover, consider this analogy: The Medieval church had become like a giant ship whose hull had become so encrusted with barnacles and seaweed that it could barely move through the water. Instead of racing through the ocean at top speed, this ship (i.e. the church) had become so burdened with the excessive weight of the “traditions of men” that the gospel message was completely obscured. The only way for this situation to change for the better was for the “traditions of men” to be stripped away so that the gospel message in its simplicity could be known once again. To accomplish this the Lord raised-up godly men (i.e. the Reformers) who took the ship (the church) into a dry dock where they scraped the sides of the church getting rid of all that encumbered it. Once this was done, the church became like a freshly cleaned and painted ship that was able to race through the oceans at top speed once again. The famous Reformation scholar Roland Bainton echoes this sentiment by saying, “The Reformation was above all else a revival of religion. So much is this the case that some have looked upon it as the last great flowering of the piety of the Middle Ages.”
Martin Luther (1483-1546) and the German Reformation:
Martin Luther, the Father of the German Reformation
Who was Martin Luther? Certainly he must be remembered as that preeminent Protestant Reformer who recovered the true gospel and rescued the Christian church from its slavery to the “traditions of men.” He began his religious career as a well-meaning, but misguided Augustinian monk. God endowed him with a remarkably curious mind that searched after truth—not just philosophical truth, but “true truth” that would actually make a difference in changing lives. He found that life-giving “truth” in the pages of Holy Scripture. There he learned that all men and women are inveterate sinners who are unable to help themselves. He also learned that God graciously sent forth his Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for sins, and that God provided the “gift of faith” so that we could believe and trust in the redemptive work of Jesus Christ on the cross. This discovery brought about a fundamental change in Luther’s life so that he realized that he had been justified on the basis of Christ’s righteousness and not his own righteousness. In gratitude he dedicated himself to live to the glory of God. The Lord used him to begin a spiritual revolution in Germany, which spread throughout Europe and in time to the rest of the world. Luther’s defense of the gospel took place at the Diet of Worms in 1521 where he stubbornly affirmed, “Here I stand; I cannot do otherwise; God help me! Amen.” He famously quarreled with Ulrich Zwingli over the nature of the Lord’s Supper. Luther also wrote against Desiderius Erasmus, the most well-regarded Roman Catholic scholar of the day. Luther took issue with Erasmus’ assertion that man has a free will when it comes to the matter of salvation. In contrast, Luther wrote in his famous treatise—The Bondage of the Will—that man is completely unable to contribute to his own salvation. Eternal salvation is totally dependent upon God’s free grace. A notable associate of Luther was Philip Melanchthon who helped to craft the Augsburg Confession in 1530 which propelled Luther’s theology throughout the centuries.
William Tyndale (c.1494–1536) and the English Reformation:
William Tyndale, the Father of the English Reformation
Long before the Reformation, God raised-up a significant individual to bring the Bible to England; his name was John Wycliffe (c.1329-1384). His Bible translation positively affected the spiritual well-being of his own country for over two centuries. In the early days of the Reformation, though, the Lord raised-up another intrepid Reformer to continue Wycliffe’s work; his name was William Tyndale. Little is known of Tyndale’s early life, however he had an innate gift for languages and it is reported that he became fluent in seven different ancient and foreign languages—Greek, Hebrew, Latin, German, Dutch, French, and Spanish! Tyndale attended Magdalen Hall at Oxford University where he received a Bachelor of Arts in 1512 and a Master of Arts in 1515. Later while teaching at Oxford he became deeply disturbed by the lack of Bible knowledge amongst his students and resolved to produce a new translation of the Bible. He famously quarreled with an English clergyman and said, “If God spare my life, ere many years, I will cause a boy that driveth the plough to know more of the Scripture than thou dost.” This kind of combative attitude offended the leaders of the English church, and in time Tyndale was treated as a trouble-maker, an outcast, and eventually as a heretic. He fled to the Netherlands and quietly continued his work of Bible translation. The normal way of getting copies of his Scriptures into England was to smuggle them into the country hidden in a bolt of fabric. Several sympathetic Dutch merchants assisted Tyndale in this effort. Despite the determination of the authorities in the English church to intercept these Bibles, copies of Tyndale’s work spread throughout England. Finally, while in the Netherlands Tyndale was betrayed by a fellow Englishman and captured by agents of King Henry VIII. After suffering in a dark and dank prison cell for seventeen months he was put to death by strangulation and his body was burned (1536). His final words were, “Lord open the King of England’s eyes!” In a short time, Tyndale’s prayer was answered and his associate, Miles Coverdale, was able to produce a translation of the Bible sponsored by the leader of the English Privy Council, Thomas Cromwell. Three years after Tyndale’s death The Great Bible—which is comprised mostly of Tyndale’s work—was published in 1539 and spread throughout the land. Tyndale has been rightly called “The Father of the English Reformation.”
John Calvin (1509-1564) and the Swiss Reformation:
John Calvin, Reformer of Switzerland and Western Europe
Many Christians today have distinct impressions of who John Calvin was, but most have never read a single line from his Institutes of the Christian Religion, or benefited from the careful exegesis found in his Commentaries on the Bible. In brief, it must be noted that the Reformer John Calvin has often been misinterpreted, misread, and misunderstood. He is, perhaps, best known for his views on the doctrines of election, predestination, and reprobation. He is also known for his pivotal role in the prosecution of the arch-heretic Michael Servetus who rejected the Trinity and the deity of Jesus Christ. But, none of these disconnected pieces of information can demonstrate, in my opinion, the true character of the man. And so, who really was John Calvin? Hughes O. Old, a noted scholar of Calvin’s life and theology, states the opinion that, “John Calvin is chiefly remembered as a biblical scholar and a systematic theologian.” While it is clear that Calvin distinguished himself through his theological writing and teaching ministry, he also was the preeminent pastor of the city of Geneva. After being tutored by Calvin, the Scottish Reformer John Knox stated that Geneva was “the most perfect school of Christ that ever was since the time of the Apostles.” Following Calvin’s death he was succeeded in Geneva by Theodore Beza. The spiritual children of Calvin are found amongst the French Huguenots, Dutch Reformed, English Puritans and Pilgrims, Scots-Irish Presbyterians, and especially amongst the Presbyterians of North America and Korea. In time, these disparate groups around the world became known as “Calvinists.” It is the Calvinists who acknowledge the sovereignty of God over all things, the covenantal relationship that God has with his people throughout history, and who emphasize the grace of God in salvation. Good works naturally follow the regenerating work of the Holy Spirit, so that they are recognized as the “fruit” of salvation. Also, Calvinists identify their beliefs as a “Reformed theology.”
John Knox (c.1514-1572) and the Scottish Reformation:
John Knox, Reformer of Scotland
Briefly stated, John Knox was born in Scotland, attended classes at St. Andrews University, experienced a life-changing conversion to Jesus Christ at twenty-nine, and a call to the ministry shortly thereafter. Following a year-long exile in St. Andrew’s Castle due to civil war, Knox was enslaved by the French and forced to row all over the North Atlantic. He came close to death while in captivity, but in God’s kind providence he was released and became a diligent and esteemed pastor in England. During the reign of Mary Tudor (i.e. “Bloody Mary”) he fled to Europe, and while there he ministered to English exiles in Frankfurt, Germany and later in Geneva, Switzerland. Knox studied Bible and theology at the feet of John Calvin. He was a husband to Marjorie Bowes, and after her untimely death, to Margaret Stewart; he was a father to two sons and three daughters. In 1559 he returned to his native Scotland where he courageously advanced the cause of the Reformation as an evangelist and later as the pastor at St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh. By his preaching and teaching, he was able to bring virtually all of Scotland to a thorough-going knowledge of the Lord Jesus Christ and he engendered in the Scots a stalwart resolve to advance Christ’s Kirk (or, Church) here on earth. The rallying cry of the Scottish Presbyterians (i.e. the Covenanters) was “For Christ’s Crown and Covenant.” This motto is directly connected to the preaching of John Knox, but it also expresses how the Scots rejected the claim that a King or Queen could rule over Christ’s Church. Knox and his followers assert that only Jesus Christ is head of the Church (or Kirk). After his death, Knox became widely known as the author of his gripping book, The History of the Reformation in Scotland.
Note: Three additional names could be added to this brief summary–Thomas Cartwright (1535-1603), Andrew Melville (1545-1622), and Samuel Rutherford (1600-1661). Each man made significant contributions to the development and progress of early Presbyterianism in England and Scotland. In time, I intend to add them to this article. ~MJServen
The Westminster Assembly (1643–1649):
The Westminster Assembly (1643-1649)
The Westminster Confession of Faith was composed during a time of intense strife and armed conflict in England (1642-1660). The two warring parties—the Royalists who were led by King Charles I and his son Charles II, and the English Parliament which was dominated by the Puritans, Independents, and Oliver Cromwell—struggled over the theological reform of the Anglican Church and the right of the reigning monarch to impose a religious system upon the English people. The English Civil War arose from this contentious struggle. In the midst of this conflict the English Parliament urged the writing of a statement of faith that would more clearly reflect the doctrines of the Protestant Reformation. As a result, the Westminster Assembly was made up of English pastors, scholars, and laymen; which consisted of 121 Divines, 10 Lords, and 20 Commoners. Representatives of the Scottish Covenanters were also invited to participate in the debate and formulation of a new Confession of Faith. These sessions were held from July 1, 1643 through February 22, 1649 and took place in St. Margaret’s Chapel, at Westminster Abbey in London, England. Amongst its key documents are a Confession of Faith in thirty-three chapters with numerous proof-texts from Scripture, a Larger Catechism of 196 questions, a Shorter Catechism of 107 questions, a Directory for Public Worship, and a Form of Presbyterial Church Government. Later a Book of Discipline, based on the Second Book of Discipline (1578) crafted by Andrew Melville of Scotland, was added to the Book of Church Order by many Presbyterian denominations to establish a procedure for dealing with church discipline and for settling disputes within the church. A volume containing a metrical version of the Psalms was also approved by the Westminster Assembly to be used in congregational and family worship. The Westminster standards were adopted by the Church of Scotland in 1647 and by the English Parliament in 1649. They are the sole foundational documents for all Presbyterian Churches throughout the world, especially those that are English-speaking. Those who hold to the Westminster Confession of Faith assert that the Bible is the primary standard, and the Confession of Faith and its Catechisms are considered to be a secondary standard.
— The Westminster Confession of Faith & Presbyterianism click here
These three volumes are good places to start for an exploration of the Reformation–they are readable, reliable, and full of interesting anecdotes!
Resources for Further Study:
Atherstone, Andrew. The Reformation: Faith and Flames. Oxford, England: The Lion Press, 2011.
Bainton, Roland. The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Boston, MA: The Beacon Press, 1952.
Daniel, David. William Tyndale: A Biography. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994.
Dawson, Jane. John Knox. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015.
George, Timothy. Theology of the Reformers. Revised Edition. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2013.
Estep, William R. Renaissance & Reformation. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1986.
Kelly, Douglas F. The Emergence of Liberty in the Modern World. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 1992.
Kittelson, James M. Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and his Career. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1986.
Letham, Robert. The Westminster Assembly: Reading its Theology in Historical Context. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2009.
Lindsey, Thomas M. The Reformation: A Handbook. First Published 1882; Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2006.
Marshall, Peter, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Reformation. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2015.
The Confession of Faith and Catechisms. American Edition (1788). Jointly published by Great Commission Publications (PCA) in Atlanta, GA, and the Committee on Christian Education (OPC) in Willow Grove, PA, 2005.
Westminster Confession of Faith. First Published in 1646; Glasgow, Scotland: Free Presbyterian Publications, 1946.
Vollmer, Philip. John Calvin: Man of the Millennium. San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum Inc., 2008.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved
“He made Him who knew no sin to be sin on our behalf, so that we might become the righteousness of God in Him.” 2 Cor. 5:21 (NASB)
Just recently I came across a very fine quote from Dr. J. I. Packer that I had copied out of his book, Knowing God, quite a long time ago. Packer sets forth–in classic Reformed style–the doctrine of propitiation in the sacrificial work of Jesus Christ. The word propitiation (Gk. hilasterion = to conciliate, appease, expiate) refers to the satisfaction of the wrath of God through the death of Christ (See: Rom. 3:25; Heb. 2:17; 1 Jn. 2:2; 1 Jn. 4:10). In short, Jesus becomes sin for his people and satisfies the divine wrath of our Holy God. In addition, he gives to them his righteousness in a “double imputation” (i.e. our sins are imputed to Him, and His righteousness is imputed to us). Consider Packer’s explanation of propitiation:
Dr. J.. I. Packer (1926-2020)
“The basic description of the saving death of Christ in the Bible is as a propitiation, that is, as that which quenched God’s wrath against us by obliterating our sins from His sight. God’s wrath is His righteousness reacting against our unrighteousness; it shows retributive justice. But Jesus Christ has shielded us from the nightmare prospect of retributive justice, in obedience to His Father’s will, and receiving the wages of sin in our place. By this means justice has been done, for the sins of all that will ever be pardoned were judged and punished in the person of God the Son, and it is on this basis that pardon is now offered to us offenders. Redeeming love and retributive justice joined hands, so to speak, at Calvary, for there God showed Himself to be ‘just, and the justifier of him that hath faith in Jesus.’ Do you understand this? If you do, you are now seeing to the very heart of the Christian gospel.”
— Dr. J. I. Packer, Knowing God, 170
Packer’s quote is an excellent reminder to us of the redemptive work that Jesus Christ accomplishes for the sake of his people. The Apostle Paul puts it this way, “Christ redeemed us from the curse of the Law, having become a curse for us–for it is written, ‘Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree'” (Gal. 3:13). Therefore, let us give praise and thanks to Almighty God for sending forth his Son to do for us what we could not do for ourselves. Jesus, by his sacrificial work on the Cross, makes it possible for us to escape the retributive justice of God and live as those who have been redeemed. Soli Deo Gloria!
— Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Here are three books by Dr. J. I. Packer that I treasure. Each one of them is great–but, Knowing God is preeminent!
Sources:
Abbott-Smith, G. A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament. Edinburgh, Scotland: T. & T. Clark Ltd., 1981.
Packer, James I. Knowing God. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1973.
“Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep’s clothing but inwardly are ravenous wolves.” Mathew 7:15
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Introduction:
What has caused the rise of heresies, heretics, and the many sectarians who have twisted Scriptural doctrines related to the person of Jesus Christ? This is certainly a valid question to ask and to ponder. Sadly, the true Church has been plagued by heresies, heretics, and sectarians ever since Ascension of Jesus Christ into heaven (Acts 1:9-11). The sudden explosion of erroneous beliefs about Jesus Christ seems to defy explanation! Cyprian (AD c.200-258), however, the wise bishop of Carthage and no stranger to false doctrines, answered this important question in the following way,
Cyprian (AD c.200-258), the Bishop of Carthage
“We must guard against wily trickery and subtle deceit no less than open and obvious perils. And could anything more subtle and wily have been devised than this? The enemy has been exposed and laid low by the coming of Christ, light came to the nations, the sun of salvation shined to save mankind, so that the deaf received the hearing of spiritual grace, the blind opened their eyes to the Lord, the weak recovered strength in eternal health, the lame ran to church, the dumb prayed aloud. Yet, when he saw the idols abandoned and his seats and temples deserted through the host of believers, our enemy thought of a new trick, to deceive the unwary under cover of the name Christian. He invented heresies and schisms to undermine faith, pervert truth, and break unity. Unable to keep us in the dark ways of former error, he draws us into a new maze of deceit. He snatches men away from the Church itself and, just when they think they have drawn near to the light and escaped the night of the world, he plunges them unawares into a new darkness. Though they do not stand by the gospel and discipline and law of Christ, they call themselves Christians. Though they are walking in darkness, they think they are in the light, through the deceitful flattery of the adversary who, as the Apostle said, transforms himself into an angel of light and adorns his ministers as ministers of righteousness who call night day, death salvation, despair hope, perfidy faith, antichrist Christ, cunningly to frustrate truth by their lying show of truth. That is what happens, my brothers, when we do not return to the fount of truth, when we are not looking to the head and keeping the doctrine taught from heaven.”
— Cyprian, The Unity of the Catholic Church, art. 3; “Early Latin Theology” in The Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5.
The Apostle Peter portrays Satan as a “roaring lion”
This candid and compelling analysis by Cyprian exposes the “wily trickery and subtle deceit” of the enemy. Defeated at the Cross, the enemy “thought of a new trick, to deceive the unwary under cover of the name Christian.” And so it is, heresies, heretics, and sectarians have risen up confusing true Christians, and entangling those individuals “into a new maze of deceit.” As Jesus stated, they are “ravenous wolves” who have disguised themselves “in sheep’s clothing” (Matt. 7:15). The Apostle Peter warns, “Be sober-minded; be watchful. Your adversary the devil prowls around like a roaring lion, seeking someone to devour. Resist him, firm in your faith” (1 Pet. 5:8-9a). Therefore, every Christian should make it their goal to know the essential doctrines delivered from Christ and the Apostles so well that erroneous beliefs can be easily spotted and foiled.
A Glossary of Key Words:
— Heresy (Gk. hairesis = lit. “able to choose”; a peculiar opinion, an unorthodox doctrine, a heresy; heresiarch = a founder or leader of a heretical group)
— Orthodox (Gk. orthodoxia = lit. “right opinion”; meaning right belief in contrast to heresy or heterodoxy)
— Heterodox (Gk. heterodoxia = lit. “different opinion”; not conforming to orthodox standards or beliefs in religion)
— Apostasy (Gk. apostosia = the formal disaffiliation of, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person)
— Sectarian (Lat. secta = “party, school, faction” and sectarius = “belonging or pertaining to a schismatic sect”; excessive attachment to a particular sect or party, especially in religion)
The Ancient Heretics and Sectarians:
Below are some of the major heresies, heretics and sectarians who greatly troubled the Christian Church from its beginnings up to the 300’s:
The Ebionites (1st Century-on) — In summary, the Ebionites regarded Jesus as a man upon whom the Spirit of God rested in its fulness. In many ways the Ebonites manifested a view of salvation similar to the Judaizers criticized by Paul in Galatians (e.g. Faith in Jesus + Obedience to the Law = Salvation). H. L. Ellison explains, “The Ebionites exalted the Law, though they considered it contained false pericopes, rejected the Pauline epistles, and regarded Jesus as the son of Joseph and Mary, but elected Son of God at his baptism when he was united with the eternal Christ, who is higher than the archangels, but not divine. This Christ appeared in various figures from Adam on. His work was that of a teacher rather than savior…They…gradually dwindled away, their last remnants being swept away by the Muslim conquest of Syria.” (Ellison, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 326). The Apostle Peter boldly refutes this heresy by declaring, “He himself bore our sins in his body on a tree, that we might die to sin and live to righteousness. By his wounds you have been healed” (1 Pet. 2:24).
Docetism (1st Century-on) — (Gk. dokew = “to seem like”). In other words, Christ only “seemed like” a man. G. W. Grogan describes this heresy in the following manner: “In the history of Christian theology this is the view that Jesus Christ was not a real man, but simply appeared so. This undermines not only the Incarnation, but also the Atonement and Resurrection…The origins of Docetism are not biblical, but Hellenistic and oriental, and are due to the idea that matter is essentially evil and to a particular construction of the doctrine of divine impassibility. Alexandria was a melting-pot of Hellenistic and oriental ideas, and the home of some of the greatest Gnostic teachers.” (Grogan, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 305). For a sharp refutation of this heresy from the New Testament see the following verses: Jn. 1:14, 18; John 8:56-59; Col. 2:9, and Heb. 1:1-3, 8; 2:14-18.
Paul of Samosata (AD d.272)
Adoptianism (1st Century-on) — This is the heretical teaching that Jesus the “Man,” became Jesus the “Christ” at his baptism (Matt. 3:13-17). It has many variations but the most common view teaches that the “Christ” who joined with Jesus at his baptism abruptly left Jesus at the Cross. Essentially, Jesus died as a mere “Man” so that his saving work on the Cross is completely denied. The bodily resurrection of Jesus is also denied by this heresy. Others held that the “Christ” remained with Jesus and allowed him to be resurrected from the dead. Harold H. Rowden describes Adoptianism as, “The view that Jesus was a man of blameless life who became the adoptive Son of God. In the early centuries some maintained that the divine Spirit descended upon Jesus—a man of perfect virtue, sometimes granted to have been born of a virgin—at His baptism, and that He was deified after His resurrection. A form of Adoptianist theology was expounded by Dynamic Monarchians, e.g., Theodotus and Paul of Samosata.” (Rowden, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 13). Jesus himself destroys this false narrative by declaring, “‘I am the Alpha and the Omega,’ says the Lord God, ‘who is and who was and who is to come, the Almighty’” (Rev. 1:8).
The Parthenon in Athens, Greece stands as an enduring monument to the ancient Gnostic mystery religions
Gnosticism — This movement represents Greek philosophy at its highest level. The Gnostics (Gk. gnosis = knowledge) maintained that only initiates who paid a fee to the priests of the Greek “mystery religions” could understand the truth about spiritual matters. The essential idea of Gnosticism was that all “flesh” (Gk. sarx) was evil, and that all “spirit” (Gk. pneuma) was righteous. Therefore, a genuine “seeker” of spiritual truth could find the deep realities of life through a series of personal experiences, either by self-indulgence in sensuality (Hedonism), or by self-denial from all pleasure (Asceticism). It was the “personal experience” of the “secret knowledge” that was the measure of all reality to the devotee of Gnosticism. Applied to Christianity, Gnosticism doubted the full deity of Jesus Christ, and at other times doubted the full humanity of Jesus Christ. The Apostle John writes rebuttals against both errors—the denial of Jesus Christ’s deity (cf. 1 John 2:22), and the denial of Jesus Christ’s humanity (cf. 1 John 4:2-3). Either way, the views of the Gnostic Christians can only be described as heresy. John certainly had the Gnostics in mind when he wrote John 1:1, and 1:14-18. The Greek term “Word” (Gk. Logos) is a Gnostic term that represents an impersonal idea that bridges the gap between God and humanity. John co-opted this term, “the Word,” by declaring that “the Word became flesh and dwelt among us.” Such a bold proclamation would be inconceivable to the serious Gnostic! This, however, was divine truth to the Christian believer. The Apostle John, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, “took every thought captive” by strategically utilizing the very terms of Gnosticism and giving them a Christian meaning (cf. 2 Cor. 10:3-6). Moreover, the Apostle Paul warns, “See to it that no one takes you captive by philosophy and empty deceit, according to human tradition, according to the elemental spirits of the world, and not according to Christ” (Col. 2:8).
The Heretic Marcion was labled “the first-born of Satan” by Polycarp, the Bishop of Smyrna
Marcion (AD 85-160) — A Roman Presbyter and in time declared to be a heretic. He was raised in Sinope on the Black Sea, but traveled to Rome and settled there in the 140’s. He stressed that the god of the Old Testament was somewhat “evil” and the God of the New Testament was perfectly “good.” Marcion also rejected the full humanity of Jesus, preferring instead to think of Jesus as only appearing to be like a man (i.e Docetism). Hence, Marcion rejected the birth narratives of the gospels in Matthew and Luke, and claimed that Jesus appeared as a fully-grown man in the fifteenth year of Tiberius. For these heresies Marcion was excommunicated from the church of Rome in AD 144. W. Ward Gasque wrote, “Marcion stressed the radical nature of Christianity vis-a-vis Judaism. In his theology there existed a total discontinuity between the OT and the NT, between Israel and the church, and even between the god of the OT and the Father of Jesus. Jesus came to reveal the true God, who was totally unknown up to the Incarnation. The god of the OT, the demiurge, an inferior being who created the material world and ruled over it, was not exactly an evil being, but he was not good in the same sense as the God and Father of Jesus, a God of love and grace” (Gasque, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 629-630). In approximately AD 150 Marcion set forth a canon of approved writings for his followers which was in contrast to the widely-accepted books of the New Testament. This led later to efforts by the historic-orthodox Church to clearly set forth the twenty-seven books of the New Testament as an officially approved list (i.e a “Canon”) at the Council of Hippo (AD 393) and later at the Council of Carthage (AD 397). Polycarp the bishop of Smyrna steadfastly referred to Marcion as “The first-born of Satan,” and both Tertullian (Against Marcion) and Irenaeus (Against Heresies) wrote extensive treatises against Marcion and his heretical notions. By the end of the second century Marcion’s movement lost its strength and it ultimately disappeared. The Apostle Paul instructed the churches to, “…avoid foolish controversies, genealogies, dissensions, and quarrels about the law, for they are unprofitable and worthless. As for a person who stirs up division, after warning him once and then twice, have nothing more to do with him, knowing that such a person is warped and sinful; he is self-condemned” (Tit. 3:9-10).
The ecstatic visions of female prophetesses was a key feature in Montanist beliefs
Montanus (he started prophesying in AD 157) — Montanus was a self-proclaimed prophet from Phrygia who advocated a life of rigid asceticism. He associated with two prophetesses by the name of Maximilla and Priscilla. All three prophets claimed to be mouth-pieces of the Paraclete (Gk. paracletes, or the Holy Spirit) and brought forth the New Prophecy. They also claimed that they could forgive sins. Montanus had a very popular following, but eventually ran into trouble with the church authorities and was excommunicated. At the Synod of Iconium in AD 230 it was ruled that Monanist baptism was not valid. In many ways, Montanus could be classified as a fanatic, or sectarian, rather than a heretic; although it must be admitted that he was excommunicated from the true Church. His teachings drew many away from Christ to more of an “elitist mentality” that put his followers over and above other Christians. Clearly, this was not the teaching of Jesus Christ who urged his disciples to a life of humility and service to others (John 13:12-16). Central to Montanist doctrine was the imminency of Christ’s Return, the forbidding of remarriage (one marriage only), the keeping of regular fasts, withdrawal from the world, and being willing to die as a martyr. The saying of “Do not hope to die in bed…but as a martyr” was typical of the high commitment to self-denial practiced by his followers. Tertullian of Carthage was one of the more distinguished followers of Montanism. Overtime, however, Tertullian reformed the excesses of Montanism, so much so that the entire movement became known as Tertullianism. The Apostle Paul warns, “But even if we or an angel from heaven should preach to you a gospel contrary to the one we preached to you, let him be accursed” (Col. 1:8).
Novatian of Rome (AD c.200-d. 258)
Novatian (c.200-d.258) — Novatian founded a small puritanical sect in Rome which took a hard line against those who had lapsed under persecution. The Novatianists prided themselves on being the “pure ones” (Lat. cathari) and therefore did not associate with many other Christians, especially those who had forsaken Christ during the persecutions (Lat. lapsi). In this way they were schismatic. H. D. McDonald writes, “Novatian demanded that the Christians who had apostatized during the Decian persecutions (AD 249-250) should not be welcomed back into the fellowship of the church. Novatian’s group formed themselves into their own party, under strict discipline. This separatist movement continued for many centuries. Their orthodoxy was never in doubt.” (McDonald, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 717). Novation was a gifted theologian who was known for his writings in favor of the Trinity. He was strongly orthodox in theology, but extremely puritanical in practice. As a result, the Novatianists formed their own churches and separated from churches they considered to be “impure.” Novatian died as a martyr during the Valerian persecution in AD 258. The Apostle Paul exhorts, “Therefore let no one pass judgement on you in questions of food and drink, or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath. These are a shadow of the things to come, but the substance belongs to Christ” (Col. 2:16-17).
Mani led many astray into his self-styled and syncretistic religion. Eventually, his favor with the Persian King evaporated and he was condemned and executed. Augustine was able to escape this “dark alley of deceit” and come to faith in Jesus Christ.
Mani (AD c.216-277) — Mani was the founder and leader of the group called the Manichaeans. Mani lived in Babylonia, but traveled extensively throughout Persia, India, and the Roman Empire once he found favor with the Persian King. His peculiar doctrines were a mixture of Persian religions, astrology, and some elements of biblical Christianity. He asserted that Jesus was “the Brilliant Light,” but he denied Jesus’ full deity. Asceticism was a hallmark of this group. J. N. Birdsall comments about Manichaean beliefs with this description, “The doctrine though claimed as a system is highly mythological. Two principles, Light and Dark, God and Matter, are eternal. The invasion of the Light led to the saving expedition of the Primeval Man, some of whose substance remained imprisoned in matter after his return. The creation of sun, moon, stars, and plant life was part of a plan to redeem this imprisoned Light. The appearance of Adam was a counterplot to retain Light imprisoned, through reproduction: “Jesus the Brilliant Light” redeemed him by a vision. The Jesus of the gospels is but an instance of the suffering of imprisoned Light in matter. The religious practice of Mani’s followers (among whom the “elect” or “righteous” ate no meat and abstained from sexual life) was an ascetic means of continuing the process of gradual liberation.” (Birdsall, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 624-625). In some ways, the Manichaeans are forerunners of the modern-day Bahai movement which has a similar set of beliefs. Augustine spent many years as a follower of the teachings of Mani before he finally came to a saving knowledge of Jesus Christ. In particular, he could never reconcile the dualistic nature of Light and Dark (i.e. Good and Evil). He slowly came to realize from his study of the Holy Scriptures that God is entirely good and righteous all together (1 Jn. 1:5; Jam. 1:13-15), that the “problem with evil” (Lat. theodicy) is thoroughly explained by the Fall of Adam and Eve (Gen. 3:1-24), and that the passing of the sin nature (the Imputation of Sins) to all of their descendants is a necessary consequence of the Fall (Rom. 5:12-19). Every human being inherits the sin nature (Original Sin) of Adam and Even, and each person is responsible for their own sins (Rom. 1:18-20; Eph. 2:1-3). The Prophets and the Apostles declare that it is only by the gracious substitutionary work of Jesus Christ on the Cross that a person can be delivered from the penalty and power of sin (Isa. 53:4-6; Rom. 3:23-26; Eph. 2:4-10; Tit. 3:4-7; 1 Pet. 2:24-25; 1 Jn. 1:7 and 2:1-2).
________________________________________
Part 2 of “Ancient Heretics and Sectarians” is under preparation and will cover heresies from AD 300 up to AD 451 (the Council of Chalcedon).
Resources for Further Study:
These three valuable books were a great help to me in navigating through the complicated maze of ancient heresies, heretics, and sectarians.
Bettenson, Henry and Chris Maunder, eds. Documents of the Christian Church. Fourth Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.
Brown, Harold O. J. Heresies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy from the Apostles to the Present. New York, NY: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1984.
Christy-Murray, David. A History of Heresy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Adoptianism” by Harold H. Rowdon
“Apostasy” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
“Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
“Cyprian” by David F. Wright
“Docetism” by G. W. Grogan
“Ebonites” by H. L. Ellison
“Gnosticism” by Edwin Yamauchi
“Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
“Irenaeus” by David F. Wright
“Jesus Christ” by F. F. Bruce
“Justin Martyr” by G. L. Carey
“Lapsi” by David F. Wright
“Manichaeism” by J. N. Birdsall
“Marcion” by W. Ward Gasque
“Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
“Monarchianism” by Samual J. Mikolaski
“Montanism” by H. D. McDonald
“Novatus” by J. G. G. Norman
“Orthodoxy” by Keith J. Hardman
“Tertullian” by David F. Wright
Dowley, Tim. The History of Christianity: A Lion Handbook. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishing, 1990.
Greenslade, Stanley L., ed. Early Latin Theology: Selections From Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose and Jerome. Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1956.
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Kelly, John N. D. Early Christian Doctrines. Second Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1958.
Lane, Anthony N. S. A Concise History of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.
Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
“John and the End of the Apostolic Age” by Leon Morris
“Paul and the Missionary Enterprise” by F. F. Bruce
“Cyprian of Carthage” by Michael A. Smith
“Irenaeus: Adversary of the Gnostics” by Everett Ferguson
“Justin Martyr: Defender of the Faith” by Edwin M. Yamauchi
“Tertullian and Western Theology” by Gerald L. Bray
Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Bloomington, IN: Warhorn Media, Reprint, 2014.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved
“And we know that all things work together for good to those who love God, to those who are the called according to His purpose.” Romans 8:28
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
John Calvin as a young man (c. 1533)
In his twenty-third year John Calvin (1509-1564) experienced a “sudden conversion” (c.1532). Through the work of the Holy Spirit he came to understand the depth of his own sin, and his need for a Savior. In short, the Lord changed his heart and he was born again (cf. John 3:5; Titus 3:4-7). He had become a disciple of Jesus Christ, and his everyday practices, his purpose in life, and his future plans were all thoroughly transformed by the Lord. He became a regular attender at an underground church that had secretly begun to assemble for worship in Paris. He quietly led Bible studies and sought to disciple new believers. During the early days of the French Reformation it was dangerous to profess faith in Jesus Christ and to attend an illegal church. Only participation in the Roman Catholic Church was permitted; all other church services and religious gatherings were prohibited.
Pierre Robert Olivetan–John Calvin’s older cousin
At that time Calvin had just finished his law degree at the University of Orleans. Due to his conversion, however, he determined to change his focus from law to studying theology at the University of Paris. He hoped to become a teacher of the Bible and a theological writer for the cause of Jesus Christ. While at the University, he renewed his friendship with a number of old friends from his hometown of Noyon. He also reconnected with his older cousin, Pierre Robert Olivetan (c.1506-1538) who would translate the Bible into French (1535). Calvin would write the Preface to the translation. In particular, he became a close companion of Nicholas Cop, who was the older brother of his friend Michel Cop. Nicholas Cop had the unique privilege of being selected by Francis I, the King of France, to become the Rector of the University of Paris. In this prestigious role he served as a leader of all the students and all the faculties of the colleges that made up the University.
On All Saint’s Day, November 1, 1533, Nicholas Cop was required to give an address, or a sermon, to the assembled faculty, students, and the entire religious community. His sermon was based on Matthew 5:3, “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.” In it he contrasted the righteousness of keeping the law, which man cannot fulfill, with the saving merits of Jesus Christ. He also encouraged personal study of the Bible and the application of its lessons to all of life. This was more than the Roman Catholic clergy at the Cathedral School of the Sorbonne could tolerate, and they rose-up in anger charging him with “Heresy!” They also brought charges before the French Parliament. Warned of his imminent arrest, Nicholas Cop fled the city of Paris for fear of his life. Unable to apprehend Cop, the religious authorities began searching about for anyone else who might have been associated with Cop and the Protestant movement. It became known through various sources that Calvin had assisted in writing the sermon given by Cop in the University Chapel. As a result, they pursued him so that he could be arrested, tried, and imprisoned.
One artist’s rendition of John Calvin escaping from Paris disguised as a vine-dresser
Late one evening the police came to Calvin’s lodgings to seize him. As they were pounding at the door his friends distracted the authorities with conversation. In God’s providence, Calvin was able to escape out the second-story window while a roommate lowered him down on bed sheets that were tied together into a rope. Once the police came into his room, they found a manuscript of Cop’s sermon in Calvin’s own handwriting. This confirmed their suspicion that Calvin was involved with the writing of Cop’s sermon. He now was a fugitive whose name was known to the religious authorities. His lot was permanently cast, and from this point on he was identified as a prominent leader within the Protestant Reformation.
Margaret of Navarre
Calvin fled into the night in his bedclothes and escaped the next morning through the city gates dressed in the garment of a vine-dresser. Later he sought refuge from Margaret of Navarre (1492-1549), the King’s sister, who was sympathetic to the Protestant cause. The timid and mild-mannered John Calvin could no longer remain in the shadows. Although this was a very difficult time, God used all of these circumstances to further shape his character and to strengthen his courage. In time, he would become one of the foremost leaders of the Protestant Reformation. Indeed, “all things worked together for good” in his life—even those events that were frightening and greatly troublesome. Soli Deo Gloria! May God be praised!
An Addendum: Emmauel Stickelberger, the preeminent biographer of Calvin, notes, “Some, not all, among the more recent students of Calvin question the Reformer’s authorship of the Rectorial address of Cop, and therefore also Calvin’s flight. Their reasons are not convincing. Calvin’s contemporary and successor, Theodore Beza, has reported both incidents as facts in his, the oldest, Calvin biography. On the MS. fragment of the address by Cop which the Geneva Library guards, there stand the words written by an old hand, “Haec Johannes Calvinus propria manu decripsit, et es auctor.” Doumergue, who is over-accurate, has not the slightest doubt (Vol. 1, pp. 331f.) Beza describes this incident in detail in his Vita Calvini.” (See: Stickelberger, Calvin: A Life, Note 7 and 8, 155-156)
The entire text of the inflammatory sermon given by Nicholas Cop is included as an Appendix in the 1536 Edition of the Institutes; also here are two of my favorite biographies of John Calvin
Resources for Further Study:
Beza, Theodore. The Life of John Calvin: A Modern Translation of the Classic. Darlington, England: Evangelical Press, 1997.
Carr, Simonetta. John Calvin: Christian Biographies for Young Readers. Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2008.
d’Aubigne, Merle J. H. The History of the Reformation in the Time of Calvin. Four Volumes. New York, NY: Robert Carter and Sons, 1863; Harrisonburg, VA: Sprinkle Publications, Reprint, 2000.
Stickelberger, Emanuel. Calvin: A Life. Translated by David Georg Gelzer. London, England: James Clarke & Company, 1959.
Van Halsema, Thea. This Was John Calvin. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing Company, 1959.
Vollmer, Philip; with contributions by J. I. Good, and Joseph C. Morecraft, III. John Calvin: Man of the Millennium. Edited by Wesley Strackbein. San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum, Inc, 2008.
Walker, Williston. John Calvin: Organizer of Reformed Protestantism. New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904. Reprint, New York: Schocken Books, 1969.
Here are three books that would be suitable for children and young adults–each one includes the story of Calvin’s escape from Paris
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved
John Wycliffe’s Bible – Translation completed in AD 1382
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
“For the Word of God is living and active, sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing to the division of soul and of spirit…” Hebrews 4:12a
Introduction:
What does the Bible say about itself? To me, this is a fascinating question because it’s answer demonstrates the firm foundation that our faith rests upon—the self-authenticating nature of the Bible. Simply stated, we believe that God has revealed Himself in the Holy Scriptures. This would be in contrast to God only revealing Himself in the created world (i.e. General Revelation). Instead, the Word of God asserts that the Lord has specifically revealed Himself in the sixty-six books of the Bible (i.e. Special Revelation). Thus, the Bible is more than a book of ancient writings, it is the very Word of God (Lat. Verbum Dei). In this respect, it differs from every other book that has ever been written. It is the Word of the Lord.
The Bible’s Testimony About Itself:
It is good for us to recall that the Bible contains God’s very own words (i.e. Verbal Plenary Inspiration), and that these words demonstrate the self-authenticating and self-attesting nature of the Bible. Consider these following citations from the Bible where it talks about itself (the italics are mine):
The Old Testament Scriptures in Hebrew
— In numerous citations throughout the Bible it says, “Thus saith the LORD.” This phrase is repeated 415 times in the Old Testament (King James Version). For example, see the following passages: Exodus 8:1; Joshua 24:2; 2 Samuel 12:7 where it is used. The expression “Thus saith the LORD” signifies that the words in the Bible are God’s very own words, and not merely the words of men.
— Deuteronomy 29:29 “The secret things belong to the LORD our God, but the things that are revealed belong to us and to our children forever, that we may do all the words of this law.”
— Deuteronomy 30:11-14 (vs. 14) “But the word is very near to you. It is in your mouth and in your heart, so that you can do it.”
— Psalm 19:7-10 “The law of the LORD is perfect, reviving the soul; the testimony of the LORD is sure, making wise the simple; the precepts of the LORD are right, rejoicing the heart; the commandment of the LORD is pure, enlightening the eyes; the fear of the LORD is clean, enduring forever; the rules of the LORD are true, and righteous altogether. More to be desired are they than gold, even much fine gold; sweeter also than honey and drippings of the honeycomb. Moreover, by them is your servant warned; in keeping them there is great reward.”
— Psalm 119:105 “Your Word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.”
— Isaiah 40:8 “The grass withers, the flower fades, but the word of our God will stand forever.”
— Isaiah 55:10-11 “…so shall my word be that goes out from my mouth; it shall not return to me empty, but it shall accomplish that which I purpose, and shall succeed in the thing for which I sent it.”
— Isaiah 66:2b “But this is the one to whom I will look: he who is humble and contrite in spirit and who trembles at my word.”
The New Testament Scriptures in Greek
— There are numerous citations throughout the New Testament that read, “It is written…” signifying, (1) that the Old and the New Testaments are unified in their essential message (i.e there is continuity and not discontinuity); (2) that the Holy Scriptures are God’s Word and are therefore authoritative; (3) that Christianity is a historical faith built upon the prophetic utterances of the past that have now been fulfilled; and (4) that the Church in this present age can be instructed and encouraged by Prophets of the past. For example, “They told him, ‘In Bethlehem of Judea, for so it is written by the prophet’: ‘And you, O Bethlehem, in the land of Judah, are by no means least among the rulers of Judah; for from you shall come a ruler who will shepherd my people Israel.’” (Referencing the prophesy of Micah 5:2)
— Matthew 5:17-18 “Do not think that I have come to abolish the Law or the Prophets; I have not come to abolish them but to fulfill them. For truly, I say to you, until heaven and earth pass away, not an iota, not a dot, will pass from the Law until all is accomplished.”
— Matthew 24:35 “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will not pass away.”
— Luke 11:28 “Blessed rather are those who hear the word of God and keep it!”
— Luke 24:25-27 “And he said to them, ‘O foolish one, and slow of heart to believe all that the prophets have spoken! Was it not necessary that the Christ should suffer these things and enter into his glory?’ And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, he interpreted to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning himself.”
— Luke 24:44-48 “Then he said to them, ‘These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still with you, that everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled.’ Then he opened their minds to understand the Scriptures, and said to them, ‘Thus it is written, that the Christ should suffer and on the third day rise from the dead, and that repentance and forgiveness of sins should be proclaimed in his name to all the nations, beginning from Jerusalem. You are witnesses of these things.’”
— John 5:39 “You search the Scriptures because you think that in them you have eternal life; and it is they that bear witness about me…”
— John 10:35b “…and Scripture cannot be broken.” (Jesus quotes from Ps. 82:6)
— John 17:17 “Sanctify them in the truth; your word is truth.”
— Colossians 3:16 “Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly, teaching and admonishing one another in all wisdom, singing songs and hymns and spiritual songs, with thankfulness to God.”
— 2 Timothy 2:9 “But the word of God is not bound!”
— 2 Timothy 3:15 “…and how from childhood you have been acquainted with the sacred writings, which are able to make you wise for salvation through faith in Christ Jesus.”
— 2 Timothy 3:16-17 “All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness, that the man of God may be competent, equipped for every good work.”
— Hebrews 4:12-13 “For the Word of God is living and active, sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing to the division of soul and of spirit, of joints and of marrow, and discerning the thoughts and intentions of the heart. And no creature is hidden from his sight, but all are naked and exposed to the eyes of him to whom we must give an account.”
— 2 Peter 1:19-21 “And we have something more sure, the prophetic word, to which you will do well to pay attention as to a lamp shining in a dark place, until the day dawns and the morning star rises in your hearts, knowing this first of all, that no prophecy of Scripture comes from someone’s own interpretation. For no prophecy was ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit.”
— 2 Peter 3:15-16 “…just as our beloved brother Paul also wrote to you according to the wisdom given him, as he does in all his letters when he speaks in them of these matters. There are some things in them that are hard to understand, which the ignorant and unstable twist to their own destruction, as they do the other Scriptures.”
By Scripture Alone:
John Wycliffe (c.1330-1384)
As Christians our belief in the authority of the Bible is central to our faith. The Reformation rallying-cry, “Scripture Alone” (i.e. Sola Scriptura) well expresses this essential commitment. This means that the Bible is the sole source of God’s special revelation; it contains the Law, the Gospel, and principles for how we should live, worship, and think. John Wycliffe was the first Englishman to push forward the notion that the Bible should be translated into the common language of the people. James Wiley, a famous historian of the Reformation, wrote, “What Wycliffe did in the field of theology was not to compile a system, but to give a plain exposition of Scripture; to restore to the eyes of men, from whom they had long been hidden, those truths which are for the healing of their souls. He left it for those who should come after him to formulate the doctrines which he deduced from the inspired page.” (Wiley, The History of Protestantism, Vol. I, 128)
Dr. Martin Luther (1483-1546)
Roughly 140 years later, Martin Luther based his whole argument for the Gospel at the Diet of Worms (April 21, 1521) on the phrase, “My conscience is captive to the Word of God.” Thus, the affirmation “Scripture Alone” (i.e. Sola Scriptura) is commonly referred to as the “formal principle” of the Reformation (Isa. 40:8; Jn. 5:39, 10:35; 2 Tim. 3:14-17, Heb. 4:12-13). This belief represents the concept that the Bible is absolutely foundational to the Christian life. To illustrate this thought, when Luther was asked about the success of the Reformation, he confidently stated, “I simply taught, preached, wrote God’s Word; otherwise I did nothing. And then, while I slept, or drank Wittenberg beer with my Philip and my Amsdorf, the Word so greatly weakened the papacy that never a prince or emperor did such damage to it. I did nothing. The Word did it all” (Quoted by Timothy George, Theology of the Reformers, 2nd Edition, 55). Luther’s bold statement demonstrates the power and authority of the Word of God to convict individuals of their sins, to transform human lives, and to sustain God’s people in the midst of the trials and tribulations of this earth.
William Tyndale (1494-1536)
A few years later the English reformer William Tyndale went even further by stating that “It was impossible to establish the lay people in any truth, except the Scripture were plainly laid before their eyes in their mother tongue.” With this vision burning in his heart, Tyndale was indefatigable in his efforts. Due to numerous threats upon his life, Tyndale fled to the Dutch Republic and to Southern Germany to continue his work. First, he translated the New Testament which was published in 1526. Secondly, he translated the books of the Pentateuch and published them in 1530. Ever watchful for the secret agents of Henry VIII, he arranged for copies of his translations to be smuggled into England hidden in bales of fabric imported into England. Through overwhelming odds he persevered in his work, but was eventually betrayed by a fellow Englishman and executed in 1536. His last words were, “Lord, open the eyes of the King of England!” This prayer was answered not long after his death when Henry VIII softened to the need for a fresh translation of the Bible. Tyndale’s associate, Miles Cloverdale, helped to produce the Great Bible (1539) which was distributed to every parish in England. Much of the text came from the work of William Tyndale.
Finally, consider what the writers of the Westminster Larger Catechism stated about their belief in the Divine nature of Holy Scripture with the following question and answer: “Question #4: How doth it appear that the Scriptures are the Word of God? Answer: The Scriptures manifest themselves to be the Word of God, by their majesty and purity; by the consent of all the parts, and the scope of the whole, which is to give all glory to God; by their light and power to convince and convert sinners, to comfort and build up believers unto salvation: but the Spirit of God bearing witness by and with the Scriptures in the heart of man, is alone able fully to persuade it that they are the very Word of God.” (Westminster Larger Catechism, Question #4)
The Westminster Assembly (1546-1549)
Each one of these historical examples–John Wycliffe, Martin Luther, William Tyndale, and the Westminster Assembly–demonstrate the whole-hearted commitment that Protestants have made toward the centrality of Holy Scripture. Simply stated, the written Word is the primary means that the Lord has used to bring forth the Gospel. This is why the overwhelming majority of Protestants put a priority upon reading, preaching, and teaching the Scriptures.
Views on the Inspiration of Scripture:
Over the centuries Christians have formulated differing views on the inspiration of Scripture. In some ways, it could be stated that a few of these “views” are not even Christian at all; since they reject the full inspiration of the Scriptures. Other views reflect the genuine struggles of sincere Christians to better understand the nature of the Bible. Here are the five most common views of the inspiration of Scripture throughout history:
Natural — no supernatural element is involved; the Bible was written by men of great genius and ability. This view denies God’s activity of inspiring the Patriarchs, Prophets, and Apostles and therefore must be rejected.
Conceptual — the concepts, but not the actual words, are inspired. This view allows human beings to pick and choose which concepts are inspired and which are not. In essence, man stands over the Bible and makes judgments as to what is inspired or is merely the opinion of men. Therefore, this view of inspiration must be rejected as capricious, erroneous, and unreliable.
Partial or Fallible Inspiration — the Bible is inspired, but it contains errors. In particular, those who endorse this position question the Bible’s complete accuracy especially in regard to the length of creation days, the reality of Adam and Eve as the first man and woman, the nature of the Fall and the imputation of sin, the likelihood of a world-wide flood, the age of the patriarchs, various numbers that are recorded in the Old Testament historical books, the on-going nature of headship and submission in male/female relationships, and various selected miracles. This view is entirely subjective and it undermines the authority of Holy Scripture. The Bible stands above human culture and is not subject to all of the ever-changing attitudes of human society. Therefore, this view must be rejected.
Dictation or Mechanical — the writers of the Scriptures were passive instruments in God’s hand, like typewriters on which He wrote. This view, however, fails to recognize that the personal circumstances of the writers of Holy Scripture are also included in the text of the Bible. Admittedly, certain parts of the Bible were dictated, such as the “Ten Commandments” and “The Lord’s Prayer.” The majority of the Bible, though, demonstrates how the Lord spoke through the individual writers. For example, Job’s despair, Moses’ leadership struggles, David’s repentance, Mary’s wonder, Peter’s failures, and Paul’s humility. Each person is shown in a true and unvarnished light, and this adds to the credibility of the Bible.
Verbal, Plenary — the very words (Verbal) and all of them (Plenary) are inspired by God and written by men. There are no errors in the original autographs of the Bible (Inerrancy). However, it is admitted that those who have copied the Bible have made errors in the manuscripts; but these are minor in scope and do not effect the trustworthy character of the Bible. The Verbal Plenary Inspiration of the Bible is the historic position of Christians throughout the ages. This view correctly upholds the authority and inspiration of the Word of God.
Three Key Passages:
Both the Apostles’ Paul and Peter address the subject of inspiration. Clearly, they affirm the doctrine of the Verbal Plenary Inspiration of the Bible. Consider these three passages and what they say about the Bible.
#1 — 2 Timothy 3:16-17 “All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness, that the man of God may be competent, equipped for every good work.”
In essence, the Bible says of itself that it is fully “inspired” by God, or literally “God-breathed” (Gk. theopneustos). This clearly states that God fully participated in the writing of the Bible. Moreover, that the Bible is profitable for “teaching” (Gk. didaskalian), for “reproof” (Gk. elegmon), for “correction” (Gk. epanorthosin), and for “training” (Gk. paideian). With the end goal being that Christians are “equipped for every good work” by the teaching that is contained in the Bible. This is why the Apostle Paul can write elsewhere, “Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly, teaching and admonishing one another in all wisdom” (Col. 3:16).
#2 — 2 Timothy 4:9-13 “Do your best to come to me soon. For Demas, in love with this present world, has deserted me and gone to Thessalonica. Crescens has gone to Galatia, Titus to Dalmatia. Luke alone is with me. Get Mark and bring him with you, for he is very useful to me for ministry. Tychicus I have sent to Ephesus. When you come, bring the cloak that I left with Carpus at Troas, also the books, and above all the parchments.”
Note that this passage demonstrates that the individual personalities, styles, and challenging circumstances of the human authors are part of the Scriptures as well. None of the trials and difficulties of the people of God are hidden from the reader of the Bible. This fact should give us confidence that the Bible is not presenting an unrealistic portrait of the Christian life. This is why Jesus’ words are comforting to so many people—“Come to me, all who labor and are heavy laden, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke upon you, and learn from me, for I am gentle and lowly in heart, and you will find rest for your souls. For my yoke is easy, and my burden is light” (Matt. 11: 28-30) Jesus came to minister to “sinners.” (cf. Matt. 9:12-13)
#3 — 2 Peter 1:19-21 “And we have something more sure, the prophetic word, to which you will do well to pay attention as to a lamp shining in a dark place, until the day dawns and the morning star rises in your hearts, knowing this first of all, that no prophecy of Scripture comes from someone’s own interpretation. For no prophecy was ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit.”
The Apostle Peter testifies to the fact that, “…no prophecy of Scripture comes from someone’s own interpretation.” In fact, the Bible uniformly condemns false prophets throughout its pages by applying the simple test of “if the word does not come to pass or come true” then “the LORD has not spoken” (Deut. 8:22). Scriptures were written by “…men spoke from God.” It can be safely stated that the Bible has one author—the Holy Spirit; yet the human writers were “carried along by the Holy Spirit” (2 Pet. 1:21). The position of the Church throughout the centuries has been to accept the verbal, plenary inspiration of the Bible. This means that each word is inspired by God, and that all of them together are important to us. The full value of the Bible’s meaning can be obtained through careful study and prayer.
The Authority of the Bible:
Biblical authority is based upon the fact that God has given us these words. Man is not the judge over Scripture, but Scripture is the judge over man. Hence, either by direct statements, or by the principles that are contained in the Bible we can be confident that we are receiving God’s truth. These statements and principles can be applied to every human circumstance with confidence in knowing that the counsel received is from God himself. When we encounter passages that we do not understand then we follow the practice of having “the Bible interpret the Bible” (i.e. the Analogy of Faith). In other words, we shed light on the more difficult passages, by applying the meaning of the easier passages to them. Dr. Harold Lindsell notes, “Apparent discrepancies are no more than that. Additional information in a thousand instances has proven that the Bible’s critics were wrong.” As time progresses, it is fascinating to note the Bible remains as a trusted repository of eternal truth. Man’s “truth” is based on the shifting sands of opinion and presuppositions. Yet, as the Prophet Isaiah proclaims, “The grass withers, the flower fades, but the word of our God will stand forever” (Isa. 40:8).
Dr. Cornelius Van Til of Westminster Theological Seminary gives a fine summary of the doctrine of Biblical authority in the following quote:
Dr. Cornelius Van Til (1895-1987)
“The Bible is thought of as authoritative on everything of which is speaks. Moreover, it speaks of everything. We do not mean that it speaks of football games, of atoms, etc. directly, but we do mean that it speaks of everything either directly or by implication. It not only tells us of the Christ and his work, but also tells us who God is and where the universe about us has come from. It tells us about theism as well as about Christianity. It gives us a philosophy of history as well as history. Moreover, the information on these subjects is woven into an inextricable whole. It is only if you reject the Bible as the Word of God that you can separate the so-called religious and moral instruction of the Bible from what it says, e.g. about the physical universe. This view of Scripture, therefore, involves the idea that there is nothing in this universe on which human beings can have full and true information unless they take the Bible into account. We do not mean, of course, that one must go to the Bible rather than to the laboratory if one wishes to study the anatomy of the snake. But if one goes only to the laboratory and not also to the Bible, one will not have a full and even true interpretation of the snake.”
— Van Til, Christian Apologetics, 19-20
Inerrancy, Infallibility, and Perspicuity:
There are three significant concepts that fit underneath the broad belief that Christians have in the authority of the Bible. They are inerrancy, infallibility, and perspicuity—what do they mean? The term inerrancy refers to how the sixty-six books of the Bible are free from error in all that is taught (e.g. factual, historical, and spiritual truth). The related term, infallibility, refers to how the writers of the Bible could not err since they were inspired by the Holy Spirit (Jn. 17:17; 2 Tim. 3:16-17; 2 Peter 1:19-21). Christians from many differing backgrounds teach that the Bible is infallible in faith and practice. Moreover, that the central message of the Bible is easy to understand; and this is called perspicuity. It must be admitted that various translations of the Bible may contain errors, according to the level of skill with which the translators did their work–but the original autographs do not err. This gives the Christian a confidence in the authority of the Bible. Moreover, it urges us to work hard to properly interpret the Bible by using the time-proven principles of biblical interpretation.
Conclusion:
William Tyndale’s Bible – AD 1536
In brief, it can be resolutely affirmed that the Bible is inspired, authoritative, inerrant, infallible, perspicuous, and sufficient. Through out the centuries of human civilization there have been many hostile critics of the Bible. But, the Bible has withstood all of these attacks and remained as the standard of objective truth in the midst of ever-changing subjectivism. We can thank God that we have a firm foundation upon which to build our faith. As the Psalmist states, “Your Word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path” (Ps. 119:105). Soli Deo Gloria!
These four books have been an immense help to me over the years. Each one is worthy of purchase and having in your own library
Resources for Further Study:
Archer, Gleason L. Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1982.
Berkhof, Louis. Manual of Christian Doctrine. Second Edition. Arlington Heights, IL: Christian Liberty Press, 2003.
Boice, James Montgomery, ed. The Foundations of Biblical Authority. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
Bruce, Frederick Fivey. The Canon of Scripture. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Academic, 1988.
Bruce, Frederick Fivey. The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? 5th Edition. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1960.
Comfort, Philip Wesley, ed. The Origin of the Bible:. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers, 1992.
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1984. See the following articles: “Analogy of Faith” “Bible, Authority of” “Bible, Canon of” “Bible, Inerrancy and Infallibility of” “Bible, Inspiration of” “Interpretation of the Bible” “Plenary Inspiration” “Verbal Inspiration.”
Harris, R. Laird. Inspiration and Canonicity of the Scriptures. Revised Edition. Greenville, SC: A Press, 1995.
Lindsell, Harold. The Battle for the Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1976.
Geisler, Norman L., ed. Inerrancy. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1980.
Geisler, Norman L. and William E. Nix. From God to Us: How We Got Our Bible. Chicago. IL: The Moody Bible Institute of Chicago, 1974.
George, Timothy. Theology of the Reformers. Second Edition. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2013.
McDowell, Josh. Evidence that Demands a Verdict. Two Volumes. San Bernardino, CA: Campus Crusade for Christ, 1972 (Vol. 1) and 1975 (Vol. 2).
Pache, Rene. The Inspiration and Authority of Scripture. Translated by Helen I. Needham. Chicago, IL: The Moody Bible Institute of Chicago, 1969.
Sproul, R. C. Scripture Alone: The Evangelical Doctrine. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2005.
The Confession of Faith and Catechisms. American Edition (1788). Jointly published by Great Commission Publications (PCA) in Atlanta, GA, and the Committee on Christian Education (OPC) in Willow Grove, PA, 2005.
Van Til, Cornelius. Christian Apologetics. Second Edition. Edited by William Edgar. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2003.
Warfield, Benjamin B. “The Westminster Confession and the Original Autographs” in Selected Shorter Writings. Vol. 2. Edited by John Meeter. Phillipsburg, NJ: The Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1973.
Warfield, Benjamin Breckinridge. The Inspiration and Authority of the Bible. Samuel G. Craig, ed. Phillipsburg, NJ: The Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company, 1948.
Wylie, James A. The History of Protestantism. 3 Volumes. Kilkeel, N. Ireland: Mourne Missionary Trust, 1990.
Young, Edward J. Thy Word is Truth: Some Thoughts on the Biblical Doctrine of Inspiration. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, Reprint, 1957.
These four volumes might be a bit more difficult to read, but they are all extraordinarily valuable. I recommend them all for your study and reflection!
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved
