Dr. John MacArthur, in my opinion, was one of the finest preachers in America. He is now with the Lord having succumbed to the ravages of pneumonia on Monday, July 14, 2025. Over the years I greatly appreciated Pastor MacArthur’s commitment to the full inspiration and inerrancy of the Bible. He popularized expositional preaching (“verse by verse”) at a time when people were wanting topical and applicational preaching. He was also known for his thoughtful commentaries on the New Testament and his many other books.
In particular, MacArthur stoutly led the charge in the 1980’s against the “easy-believism” of modern Evangelicalism by emphasizing the Lordship of Jesus Christ. Moreover in the mid-1990’s, along with Dr. R. C. Sproul, he defended the erosion of the gospel against a resurgent Roman Catholicism. When other Protestant theologians were willing to compromise with the Roman Catholics, MacArthur refused to do so believing that the very essence of the gospel was at stake. Later he wrote against the excesses of Charismatic worship and stood firmly against the overreach of civil government during the Covid crisis.
Even though he was a life-long Baptist (similar to C. H. Spurgeon) and a Dispensational Premillennialist (i.e. holding to a future millennial reign of Christ on the earth), MacArthur firmly adopted the Doctrines of Grace in Reformed theology (i.e. Five-Point Calvinism), oversaw a God-centered worship service each week that was regulated by Scripture, and practiced a Presbyterian form of government within his own local church (i.e. led by elders). The English Puritans were a major influence upon this theology and he delighted in promoting the works of various Puritan authors and sponsoring several conferences on the Puritans. In particular, he appreciated the preaching ministry of Dr. Martyn Lloyd-Jones of the Westminster Chapel in London, England and widely endorsed his sermons and biblical commentaries.
Here are two illustrative quotes that greatly influenced me from MacArthur’s well-regarded book, The Gospel According to Jesus:
“We must remember above all that salvation is a sovereign work of God. Biblically it is defined by what it produces, not by what one does to get it. Works are not necessary to earn salvation. But true salvation wrought by God will not fail to produce the good works that are its fruit (cf. Matthew 7:17). We are God’s workmanship. No aspect of salvation is merited by human works (Titus 3:5-7). Thus salvation cannot be defective in any dimension. As a part of His saving work, God will produce repentance, faith, sanctification, yieldedness, obedience, and ultimately glorification. Since He is not dependent on human effort in producing those elements, an experience that lacks any of them cannot be the saving work of God.”
— John MacArthur, The Gospel According to Jesus, 1st Edition, 33.
Also, consider this forceful quote,
“Thus the test of true faith is this: does it produce obedience? If not, it is not saving faith. Disobedience is unbelief. Real faith obeys.”
— John MacArthur, The Gospel According To Jesus, 1st Edition, 47.
These powerful citations demonstrate MacArthur’s commitment to not separate the believer’s justification from his sanctification. The Christian life embraces both aspects of the sovereign work of God–the forgiveness of our sins by forensic justification and our sanctification by the transforming work of the Holy Spirit. We do not have the freedom to claim Jesus Christ as our Savior while at the same time rejecting Him as our Lord. Both go together and there is no separation.
The massive sanctuary at Grace Community Church seats 3,500 worshippers for each service–and in my experience, it was always full! People are hungry for the Word of God!
My wife and I had the unique privilege of attending Grace Community Church in 1985-1986 when I returned to seminary for further studies in Systematic Theology and New Testament Greek. We heard Dr. MacArthur preach verse by verse through many books of the Bible over that formative year. This was a delight to us and his style of preaching deeply influenced me when I returned to the ministry of the pulpit in 1987. I will always be grateful for his unflagging example of personal devotion to Jesus Christ and his steadfast pastoral leadership.
The Bible affirms the following truth about the death of believers, “And I heard a voice from heaven saying, ‘Write this: Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord from now on.’ ‘Blessed indeed,’ says the Spirit, ‘that they may rest from their labors, for their deeds follow them!'” (Rev. 14:13). Such is now true for Dr. John MacArthur. Although he is absent from the body, he is now present with the Lord (2 Cor. 5:6-9). No doubt, he will be deeply missed! But let us pray that God will raise-up in our own age more preachers with the same gifts and spiritual zeal as Dr. John MacArthur. Soli Deo Gloria!
— Dr. Marcus J. Serven
An Addendum: There is a very fine biography of Dr. John MacArthur’s life and ministry written by Iain H. Murray that I would highly recommend.
Here are the details:
Murray, Iain H. John MacArthur: Servant of the Word and Flock. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2011.
The deep verdant green of the Irish countryside is so breathtakingly beautiful!
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
“The Lord is my helper; I will not fear; what can man do to me?” Hebrews 13:6
Sometimes a person’s life gets “interrupted” by an event that they did not expect. That certainly happened to Patrick (AD c.389-c.463). When he was just sixteen years old Patrick was suddenly kidnapped by Irish sea-raiders, taken away from his home in England, and sold as a slave. If that difficulty happened to you, you might think that God had somehow “abandoned” you. Patrick would learn, however, that the Lord is in control of all events and that even terrible things that we can’t fully explain are used for “good” in the Christian’s life. God promises in the Bible, “…we know that for those who love God all things work together for good” (Rom. 8:28). This means that we can trust God in the midst of our trials and tribulations. And so, what happened to Patrick now that he was forced to be a slave in Ireland? In God’s providence what “good” could possibly come from all of this?
This flock of sheep is much like the ones that Patrick carefully shepherded on Skerry Hill
Here is what happened: Once Patrick was sold as a slave, his new master, Michlu, assigned him to work as a shepherd caring for the livestock. He was given a couple of Irish wolfhounds—huge and fierce dogs—to help protect the sheep, hogs, and cows from ravaging wolves. Patrick learned how to manage these dogs by speaking to them in Gaelic, the common language of the Irish people. The dogs learned to trust him, and he learned to trust them—they were a team in protecting the livestock from the wolves. The wolves were especially dangerous during the winter months when in hunger they would attack the livestock. Most times the shepherds were successful at protecting the livestock, but at other times the fierce wolves would be able to carry away the younger members of the flock. Patrick served as a shepherd for six long years. Nevertheless, he always dreamed of returning to his own family in England. One day, he came up with a plan and with the aide of a friend he set in motion his escape from captivity.
This picture gives the reader some idea of the sheer size of an Irish Wolfhound!
Leaving in the middle of the night he made his way down to the seashore where he planned to flee from Ireland by ship. No one, though, was willing to take him! He noticed that one ship was transporting a cargo of Irish wolfhounds. The sailors found them to be completely unmanageable. Patrick volunteered to care for them. To demonstrate his abilities, he calmed the wild and restless dogs by speaking to them in Gaelic. He also urged the Captain to arrange for their feeding. The dogs calmed down under Patrick’s care and he was taken aboard as a welcome passenger on the ship. Initially he was transported to Spain, but then over time he made his way back to England. What joy it was to be back at home with his father and mother!
Over the next several years he experienced a reoccurring dream—a voice would say in Gaelic, “Holy Boy, we beseech you to come and walk among us once more.” Patrick understood this to mean that God was calling him to return to Ireland—not to give himself up as a runaway slave, but to minister to the Irish people as a Missionary-Evangelist. After lots of study, prayer, and preparation the church leaders called him to that very task—to take the gospel to Ireland. When Patrick finally arrived in Ireland he was 42 years old (AD 432); this is what happened,
“…the ship landed off the coast of Dublin. Dublin was not a great city then—it was merely a village. But it was the capital of the province of Wicklow, and it was ruled by a king named Dichu. Again the ship was anchored, and again Patrick and his crew were rowed ashore. “Let us walk to the top of the hill that I see a mile away,” Patrick said. “From there we can see all of this part of the country.” As they walked toward the hill, they saw a group of men waiting there. Then the silence of the morning was shattered by the angry growling of dogs. The sound struck terror in the hearts of Patrick’s companions. Four dogs rushed down the hill toward the defenseless men who carried no swords—merely pilgrim’s staffs.”
“Patrick stood there calmly while the others dropped to their knees in fright. Surely, they thought, these wild dogs would tear them to bits. The dogs—huge, fierce Irish wolfhounds—were snarling as they rushed toward Patrick and his group of frightened men. Then Patrick’s clear voice rang out. He talked to the dogs as he had once talked to the dogs which had helped him guard the swine on Skerry Hill. He talked to them as he had talked to the dogs on Captain Tigras’ ship. And the dogs, hearing the familiar commands in the language they understood, stopped snarling. When Patrick gave a sharp command, they halted. Patrick walked toward them, talking soothingly to them. The dogs dropped to the ground. They whimpered and crawled toward Patrick, and then they arose and licked his outstretched hand.”
A Celtic Cross–clearly symbolizes the sacrificial death of Christ and the compelling testimony of the four Gospels
“The men on the hill had watched all this in amazement. Among them was Dichu, the king, who had taught the dogs to kill his enemies. To Dichu, any strangers who landed on these shores were enemies. But instead of tearing these enemies to bits, the dogs were now allowing themselves to be patted on the head by the leader of this band of strangers. Dichu led his men down the hill. “Who are you?” he asked curiously. Patrick told him. He also told him why he had come to Ireland. “But don’t you know, Patrick,” Dichu said, “that many kings in Ireland have vowed to kill you if you are indeed the one spoken of in the prophecy?” Patrick nodded. “Of course I know that, but I have faith in God.” “Do you believe that your God can protect you against the swords of the Irish kings?” Dichu asked. Patrick smiled. “That is a small thing for God to do,” he said. “I know very little about your God,” Dichu admitted. “I should like to know more. Will you and your band stay with me awhile, and will you tell me of this God of yours?”
— Quentin Reynolds, The Life of Saint Patrick, 131-133
One artist’s depiction of Patrick
Over the next thirty years (AD 432-463) Patrick faithfully shared the gospel with the people of Ireland. Sadly, they were enslaved to idols (false gods) and to evil spirits (demons). The Lord Jesus slowly began to deliver them from their unbelief, forgiving their sins, and giving them new life in Christ. One biographer notes that Patrick was busy “…sowing belief until he brought all the Ulstermen by the net of the gospel to the harbor of life.” In God’s wonderful providence all of the trials and tribulations of Patrick’s life actually equipped him for service as a Missionary-Evangelist to the Irish people. This outcome was the “good” that God had prepared him for. Due to his bold and clear preaching multitudes of Irish people professed their faith in Christ, thousands of baptisms took place, and many churches were established throughout the land. In short, the gospel message went forward in Ireland with great power!
Even though this particular Irish Celtic Church lays in ruins–the Christian faith lives on in Ireland! Jesus declared, “…the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.” (Matt. 16:18b)
Resources for Further Study:
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History: An Illustrated Account of 20 Centuries of Christ’s Power. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Marshall, Catharine T. “Patrick: Missionary to the Irish” in Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Edited by John D. Woodbridge. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
Neill, Stephen. A History of Christian Missions. Second Edition. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1986.
Olsen, Ted. Christianity and the Celts. Downers Grove, Il: InterVarsity Press, 2003
Reynolds, Quentin. The Life of Saint Patrick. In the “Landmark Series.” New York, NY: Random House Publishers, 1955.
Swanson, Kevin, ed. “Patrick’s Confessions and Breastplate” in Great Christian Classics: Five Remarkable Narratives of the Faith. Parker, CO: Generations with Vision, 2010.
Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved
“The LORD says to my Lord: ‘Sit at my right hand, until I make your enemies your footstool’.” Psalm 110:1
Over the past two weeks as I was preparing to preach on the Ascension of Jesus Christ into heaven (Acts 1:4-11), I came across these two very fine quotes from Dr. Cornelis Venema on “The Session of Christ.” Essentially, the term “Session” (Lat. sessio = a sitting) refers to how Jesus Christ now reigns in heaven over the Kingdom of God here on earth. When Jesus ascended into heaven and sat down at the right hand of God, he not only finished his public ministry (as a Prophet), completed his saving work on the Cross (as a Priest), but he also began to reign over his kingdom (as a King). Moreover, during this time between the resurrection of Christ and the return of Christ the Kingdom of God is growing and expanding (Matt. 13:31-33; Matt. 16:18). In addition, Christ’s enemies are being defeated and the gospel message is spreading throughout the entire world (Matt. 12:29; Luke 10:17-18; John 12:31-32). There may be times of discouragement in life when we lose all hope and can’t see it’s growth. Yet the promise of the Bible is that the Kingdom of God is “in the midst” of us (Luke 17:20-21). Dr. Venema capably expands on these thoughts with these two quotes:
Dr. Cornelis P. Venema
“Just as Christ fulfills all of the Old Testament promises (2 Cor. 1:20), Christ also guarantees the future consummation of all God’s promises by his resurrection from the dead, session at the Father’s right hand, and outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost. These events are disclosed in the New Testament as end-time events, that is, events which mark a decisive turning point in history. These events signal that Christ has been given all authority in heaven and on earth and will reign until all things have been subject to him, including death, the last enemy (1 Cor. 15:25-26). By his resurrection from the dead, Christ has become the ‘first fruits’ of all who will through union with him share in his victory. By his session at the Father’s hand, Christ has been given the keys to unlock God’s plan for history until he is revealed at the ‘last day.’ And by his outpouring of the Holy Spirit, he has entered into the last and most decisive epoch in his church-gathering work which, once completed, will serve to prepare all things for his coming again.”
— Venema, The Promise of the Future, 8-9
Dr. Venema further explains,
“The biblical revelation regarding the future, therefore, always fixes our attention upon Christ. Just as God’s ways with his people in history in times past have all met in Christ, so all of his ways in the future will meet in Christ. The great event on the horizon of the future, in biblical perspective, is accordingly the event of Christ’s return or ‘Second Coming’. This event is the great future toward which all history is moving. It is the event that gives meaning to present history and which will consummate God’s work of redemption. the entirety of the biblical teaching about the future is intimately linked to the coming of Christ at the end of the present age.”
— Venema, The Promise of the Future, 9
These words–and all of the Scripture passages that back them up–give me hope. All that Jesus said would happen regarding his death and resurrection have come to pass. And now that he reigns over his kingdom (i.e. in his “Session”) we can be confident that it will be fully consummated upon his return. Alleluia!
— Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Resources for Further Study:
Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. 1st Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1984.
“Ascension of Christ” by Alexander Ross
“Kingdom of Christ, God, Heaven” by George E. Ladd
“Millennium, Views of the” by Robert G. Clouse
“Offices of Christ” by Robert L. Reymond
“Session” by David H. Wheaton
“States of Jesus Christ” by Wayne A. Grudem
Venema, Cornelis P. The Promise of the Future. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2000.
Venema, Cornelis P. “The Four Main Millennial Views” in These Last Days: A Christian View of History. Edited by Richard D. Phillips and Gabriel N. E. Fluhrer. Co-Published by the Alliance of Confessing Evangelicals (Philadelphia, PA); and P&R Publishing (Phillipsburg, NJ), 2011.
“And when he had said these things, as they were looking on, he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight.” Acts 1:9
Just last week on Ascension Day (May 29, 2025) I had the opportunity to preach at our church, Redeemer Presbyterian Church (PCA) here in Austin, TX. We have four pastors at Redeemer, and since I am the one who is “semi-retired” I usually preach once or twice a year. Instead, my role at the church is focused on teaching. I regularly instruct adults in our School of Discipleship classes on Sunday mornings. Beyond that, I am the director of Redeemer Theological Academy teaching college-level courses in Biblical studies, Systematic Theology, and Church History. This suits me quite well, and I am grateful to focus my energies on teaching at this point in life. Nonetheless, below is an audio file of my recent sermon. Also, you will find an introduction to the text and my notes.
* * * * * * * * * *
Introduction: The Ascension of Jesus Christ into Heaven is often overlooked. We take note of Jesus’ birth on Christmas day, his betrayal on Maundy Thursday, his death on Good Friday, and his bodily resurrection on Easter Sunday. But somehow the Ascension gets passed by with barely a notice. Why is this particular event in the life of Jesus so important? Here are a few thoughts to consider: When Jesus ascends into Heaven (1) it is the fulfillment of the promise of the coming of the Holy Spirit; (2) it is the formal establishment of the Kingdom of God (not a physical Kingdom, but a spiritual one); (3) it is the beginning of Jesus’ role as an intercessor for his people; (4) it is the acceptance of Jesus’ atoning work by the Father; and (5) it is a pledge that Jesus will return in the same way in which he departed. Thus, the Ascension is like “a hinge” upon which all of these events swing. Let us, then, acknowledge the glorious significance of Jesus’ ascent into Heaven.
Here is my outline plus a few of the additional Bible verses that I referred to in this sermon:
1. The Promise of the Holy Spirit, (vs. 4-5) — Luke 24:49; John 14:26 and 16:7
2. The Establishment of the Kingdom of God, (vs. 6-7) — Amos 9:11: Luke 17:20-21
3. The Beginning of Jesus’ Role as an Intercessor, (vs. 8) — Hebrews 7:25 and 9:24
4. The Acceptance of Jesus’ Saving Work, (vs. 9) — 1 Timothy 3:16; Psalm 110:1; 1 John 2:1
5. The Pledge of Jesus’ Future Return, (vs. 10-11) — Luke 24:30-31; Matthew 24:30-31; Daniel 7:13-14
Here is an audio file of my sermon: I hope you enjoy it!
— Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven
These three volumes really blessed me in my sermon preparation–they have great insights!
“Therefore, since we have been justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ.” Romans 5:1
Rev. G. I. Williamson (1925-2023)
“One of the basic errors of Roman Catholicism is confusion of justification and sanctification, that is, between legal and inherent righteousness. Rome teaches that at certain times (such as immediately after baptism, or reception of one of the other sacraments) a person is “just.” What is meant, however, is that the person is actually made internally holy and not just legally righteous before God. This holiness, according to Rome, can then be partially or even totally destroyed by sin, venial or mortal. A person may cease to be just. He must again be justified through sacramental grace. And on it goes in a constant cycle. Sin nullifies sacramental grace, and then sacramental grace nullifies sin. This is a doctrine that gives no peace (see Rom. 5:1). One can never be certain of his standing with God. But more than this, it does not make sense. For if sacramental grace actually produced inward holiness, then why would that person ever sin again? If justification meant perfect inward holiness, then there could be no further sin, because a “perfect tree will bring forth perfect fruit” (see Luke 6:43-45). This difficulty is removed when we distinguish between justification and sanctification. In justification the sinner is once and for all declared holy, legally absolved from all guilt and punishment of sin, whether original or actual, past or future. In sanctification the sinner is gradually and progressively purged of all pollution and practice of sin, so that sin is progressively weakened (in the long run), and inherent holiness becomes progressively stronger, until finally the person becomes (at death) actually as righteous as he has long been legally.”
— Rev. G. I. Williamson, The Westminster Confession of Faith: For Study Classes, 142
These wise words from G. I. Williamson give me an eternal hope! I can trust that the justification provided by Jesus Christ is completely sufficient for the pardon of all of my sins. Based upon that new reality, I can live by faith as one who actively seeks after holiness. All of this is based upon the clear teachings of the Bible, and not just upon the ever-changing “traditions of men.” Praise be to God!
— Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Resources for Further Study:
Williamson, G. I. The Westminster Confession of Faith: For Study Classes. Second Edition. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2004.
You might also consider…
Barrett, Matthew, ed. The Doctrine on Which the Church Stands or Falls: Justification in Biblical, Theological, Historical, and Pastoral Perspective. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2019.
McGrath, Allister E. Justification by Faith: What It Means to Us Today. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1988.
Sproul, R. C. Faith Alone: The Evangelical Doctrine of Justification. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1995.
Martin Luther makes his bold defense before Charles 5th and the Papal legate at Worms
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
“Our God is a refuge and a strength, a very present help in trouble.” Psalm 46:1
Over five hundred years ago, Martin Luther was ordered by Charles 5th, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, to travel to Worms, Germany to make his defense. He was given a promise of “safe conduct” to and from the gathering (or Diet). His friends reminded him, though, of how John Huss had been given a similar promise over a hundred years before, but was betrayed and lost his life (1417). With that ominous threat in mind Luther had to be careful as he traveled the long road to Worms in his oxen-drawn carriage. He felt fear at the prospect of dying in the flames while chained to a stake. But he also felt that it would be a privilege to die for the sake of his Lord Jesus Christ. Once he arrived at Worms (on April 16, 1521), it was demanded that Luther reject all of his books and recant the truths he had discovered from his studies in the Bible. Under the extreme pressure of the moment, he asked for a day to think it over. This was granted. After spending an anguished night of prayer and reflection in a high tower he refused to recant and the next morning he made the following courageous speech:
Emperor Charles 5th
“Since Your Majesty and your lordships desire a simple reply, I will answer without horns and without teeth. Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason—I do not accept the authority of popes or councils, for they have contradicted each other—my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. May God help me, Amen.”
— Roland Bainton, Here I Stand, 144
Luther was abruptly dismissed from the gathering by the emperor, and it appeared that he had emerged victorious from the Diet of Worms. He began his travel home to Wittenberg on April 26, 1521 trusting that he would be able to return to his studies and to his eager students. Unknown to Luther, however, ten days after he departed the emperor declared him to be a criminal and a heretic (May 6, 1521). He ordered that Luther be captured and held for future judgment. Luther’s friends, though, had a different plan. Anticipating what might happen, they schemed to get him away from all of his enemies to a place of safety and thereby preserve his life. The famous historian of the Reformation, Dr. J. H. Merle D’Aubigne, gives us the details of what happened on that fateful day:
“On the following day he resumed his journey, accompanied by Amsdorf and his brother James. In these lonely spots the reformer’s lot was to be decided. They were passing along the forest of Thuringia, on the road to Waltershausen, As the carriage was in a hollow part of the road…a sudden noise was heard, and at that moment five horsemen, masked and in complete armor, rushed upon the travelers. Luther’s brother, as soon as he perceived the assailants, leapt from the vehicle, and ran off at full speed without uttering a word. The driver was for defending himself. “Stop!” cried one of the assailants in a stern voice, and rushing upon him threw him to the ground. A second man in a mask seized Amsdorf, and prevented him from coming near. Meanwhile the three other horsemen laid hold of Luther, keeping the most profound silence. They pulled him violently from the carriage, threw a horseman’s cloak upon his shoulders and placed him on a led horse. Then the other two quitted Amsdorf and the driver, and the whole leapt into their saddles. The hat of one of them fell off, but they did not even stop to lift it, and in a twinkling disappeared in the dark forest with their prisoner. They at first took the road to Broderode; but they soon retraced their steps by a different road, and, without quitting the forest, made turnings and windings in all directions, in order to deceive those who might attempt to follow their track…nightfall having made it impossible to follow their track, the party carrying off Luther took a new direction, and about an hour before midnight arrived at the foot of a mountain. The horses climbed slowly to its summit, on which stood an old fortress, surrounded on all sides, except that of the entrance, by the black forests which cover the mountains of Thuringia. To this elevated and isolated castle, named the Wartburg…was Luther conducted.”
— D’Aubigne, The History of the Reformation, Book VII, 214
News of Luther’s kidnapping quickly spread throughout the countryside. Some people were delighted, while others responded with anguished feelings of grief and sorrow. They did not know if Martin Luther was dead or alive! But rather than being captured by his enemies, Luther had actually been kidnapped by his friends! The supportive German Prince, Frederick of Saxony, arranged for Luther’s “kidnapping” by his trustworthy knights in order to protect him from the vengeful Roman Catholic authorities.
The Wartburg–Martin Luther referred to this remote mountain refuge as “My Patmos”
Luther as “Junker George”
For almost a year Luther lay hidden in “The Wartburg” under the false name, Junker George (or “George the Knight”). During this time he grew a beard and carried a large sword to complete the disguise. Rather than remain idle, or feel sorry for himself, he used this time of concealment well and wrote a large number of pamphlets defending the doctrines he had discovered in the Bible. Moreover, he began work on translating the entire New Testament into German (completed in 1522). Finally, he wrote many stirring hymns of which “A Mighty Fortress is our God” is the best known. It has been reported that while watching the smoke rise from many peasant campfires in the valley far below, Luther became discouraged by intense feelings of loneliness and despair. A fresh wind, though, suddenly arose and blew all the smoke away. He was greatly encouraged by this sight and rejoiced that the Lord can remove our own fears and doubts as easily as the wind can blow away smoke. Indeed, “Our God is a refuge and a strength, a very present help in trouble.” Psalm 46:1
Resources for Further Study:
Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1950.
D’Aubigne, J. H. Merle. The History of the Reformation. Originally Published in 1872; Powder Spring, GA: Powder Springs Press, Facsimile Edition, 2008.
Hildebrand, Hans J., ed. The Reformation: A Narrative History. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, 1964.
Kittleson, James M. Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and his Career. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1986.
Rupp, Gordon. Luther’s Progress to the Diet of Worms 1521. London, England: SCM Press Ltd., 1951.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved
“For with you is the fountain of life; in your light do we see light.” Psalm 36:9
Introduction:
There are many significant Reformers who the Lord raised-up during the time of the Reformation. I am going to focus, however, on the four Reformers who made the most important contributions towards the growth and development of a thorough-going Protestant theology–Martin Luther, William Tyndale, John Calvin, and John Knox. These four church leaders emphasized the sovereignty of God, the utter sinfulness of humanity, the centrality of God’s justifying grace in salvation, the necessity of preaching the Bible, the proper administration of the Sacraments (Baptism and the Lord’s Supper), and a church structure based on the Bible (i.e. Elder-led). As a long-time Presbyterian Minister (since 1980), I am also extraordinarily interested in the development of European Presbyterianism. It is the foundation of Presbyterianism in America and throughout the entire world. To put it succinctly, this article will be a brief summary of the lives and ministries of four Protestant Reformers from 30,000 feet!
Setting the Stage: Why was the Reformation necessary?
The coat of arms and motto of Geneva, Switzerland
The central reason why the Reformation was necessary was for the recovery of the gospel. Without it, the church had become a place of darkness. The motto for the city of Geneva, Switzerland during the Reformation explains this viewpoint well; it declared, Post Tenebras Lux (Lat. “after darkness, light!”). Moreover, consider this analogy: The Medieval church had become like a giant ship whose hull had become so encrusted with barnacles and seaweed that it could barely move through the water. Instead of racing through the ocean at top speed, this ship (i.e. the church) had become so burdened with the excessive weight of the “traditions of men” that the gospel message was completely obscured. The only way for this situation to change for the better was for the “traditions of men” to be stripped away so that the gospel message in its simplicity could be known once again. To accomplish this the Lord raised-up godly men (i.e. the Reformers) who took the ship (the church) into a dry dock where they scraped the sides of the church getting rid of all that encumbered it. Once this was done, the church became like a freshly cleaned and painted ship that was able to race through the oceans at top speed once again. The famous Reformation scholar Roland Bainton echoes this sentiment by saying, “The Reformation was above all else a revival of religion. So much is this the case that some have looked upon it as the last great flowering of the piety of the Middle Ages.”
Martin Luther (1483-1546) and the German Reformation:
Martin Luther, the Father of the German Reformation
Who was Martin Luther? Certainly he must be remembered as that preeminent Protestant Reformer who recovered the true gospel and rescued the Christian church from its slavery to the “traditions of men.” He began his religious career as a well-meaning, but misguided Augustinian monk. God endowed him with a remarkably curious mind that searched after truth—not just philosophical truth, but “true truth” that would actually make a difference in changing lives. He found that life-giving “truth” in the pages of Holy Scripture. There he learned that all men and women are inveterate sinners who are unable to help themselves. He also learned that God graciously sent forth his Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for sins, and that God provided the “gift of faith” so that we could believe and trust in the redemptive work of Jesus Christ on the cross. This discovery brought about a fundamental change in Luther’s life so that he realized that he had been justified on the basis of Christ’s righteousness and not his own righteousness. In gratitude he dedicated himself to live to the glory of God. The Lord used him to begin a spiritual revolution in Germany, which spread throughout Europe and in time to the rest of the world. Luther’s defense of the gospel took place at the Diet of Worms in 1521 where he stubbornly affirmed, “Here I stand; I cannot do otherwise; God help me! Amen.” He famously quarreled with Ulrich Zwingli over the nature of the Lord’s Supper. Luther also wrote against Desiderius Erasmus, the most well-regarded Roman Catholic scholar of the day. Luther took issue with Erasmus’ assertion that man has a free will when it comes to the matter of salvation. In contrast, Luther wrote in his famous treatise—The Bondage of the Will—that man is completely unable to contribute to his own salvation. Eternal salvation is totally dependent upon God’s free grace. A notable associate of Luther was Philip Melanchthon who helped to craft the Augsburg Confession in 1530 which propelled Luther’s theology throughout the centuries.
William Tyndale (c.1494–1536) and the English Reformation:
William Tyndale, the Father of the English Reformation
In the early days of the Reformation the Lord raised-up an intrepid Reformer to continue the work of John Wycliffe–his name was William Tyndale. Little is known of Tyndale’s early life, however he had an innate gift for languages and it is reported that he became fluent in seven different ancient and foreign languages—Greek, Hebrew, Latin, German, Dutch, French, and Spanish! Tyndale attended Magdalen Hall at Oxford University where he received a Bachelor of Arts in 1512 and a Master of Arts in 1515. Later while teaching at Oxford he became deeply disturbed by the lack of Bible knowledge amongst his students and resolved to produce a new translation of the Bible. He famously quarreled with an English clergyman and said, “If God spare my life, ere many years, I will cause a boy that driveth the plough to know more of the Scripture than thou dost.” This kind of combative attitude offended the leaders of the English church, and in time Tyndale was treated as a trouble-maker, an outcast, and eventually as a heretic. He fled to the Netherlands and quietly continued his work of Bible translation. The normal way of getting copies of his Scriptures into England was to smuggle them into the country hidden in a bolt of fabric. Several sympathetic Dutch merchants assisted Tyndale in this effort. Despite the determination of the authorities in the English church to intercept these Bibles, copies of Tyndale’s work spread throughout England. Finally, while in the Netherlands Tyndale was betrayed by a fellow Englishman and captured by agents of King Henry VIII. After suffering in a dark and dank prison cell for seventeen months he was put to death by strangulation and his body was burned (1536). His final words were, “Lord open the King of England’s eyes!” In a short time, Tyndale’s prayer was answered and his associate, Miles Coverdale, was able to produce a translation of the Bible sponsored by the leader of the English Privy Council, Thomas Cromwell. Three years after Tyndale’s death The Great Bible—which is comprised mostly of Tyndale’s work—was published in 1539 and spread throughout the land. Tyndale has been rightly called “The Father of the English Reformation.”
John Calvin (1509-1564) and the Swiss Reformation:
John Calvin, Reformer of Switzerland and Western Europe
Many Christians today have distinct impressions of who John Calvin was, but most have never read a single line from his Institutes of the Christian Religion, or benefited from the careful exegesis found in his Commentaries on the Bible. In brief, it must be noted that the Reformer John Calvin has often been misinterpreted, misread, and misunderstood. He is, perhaps, best known for his views on the doctrines of election, predestination, and reprobation. He is also known for his pivotal role in the prosecution of the arch-heretic Michael Servetus who rejected the Trinity and the deity of Jesus Christ. But, none of these disconnected pieces of information can demonstrate, in my opinion, the true character of the man. And so, who really was John Calvin? Hughes O. Old, a noted scholar of Calvin’s life and theology, states the opinion that, “John Calvin is chiefly remembered as a biblical scholar and a systematic theologian.” While it is clear that Calvin distinguished himself through his theological writing and teaching ministry, he also was the preeminent pastor of the city of Geneva. After being tutored by Calvin, the Scottish Reformer John Knox stated that Geneva was “the most perfect school of Christ that ever was since the time of the Apostles.” Following Calvin’s death he was succeeded in Geneva by Theodore Beza. The spiritual children of Calvin are found amongst the French Huguenots, Dutch Reformed, English Puritans and Pilgrims, Scots-Irish Presbyterians, and especially amongst the Presbyterians of North America and Korea. In time, these disparate groups around the world became known as “Calvinists.” It is the Calvinists who acknowledge the sovereignty of God over all things, the covenantal relationship that God has with his people throughout history, and who emphasize the grace of God in salvation. Good works naturally follow the regenerating work of the Holy Spirit, so that they are recognized as the “fruit” of salvation. Also, Calvinists identify their beliefs as a “Reformed theology.”
John Knox (c.1514-1572) and the Scottish Reformation:
John Knox, Reformer of Scotland
Briefly stated, John Knox was born in Scotland, attended classes at St. Andrews University, experienced a life-changing conversion to Jesus Christ at twenty-nine, and a call to the ministry shortly thereafter. Following a year-long exile in St. Andrew’s Castle due to civil war, Knox was enslaved by the French and forced to row all over the North Atlantic. He came close to death while in captivity, but in God’s kind providence he was released and became a diligent and esteemed pastor in England. During the reign of Mary Tudor (i.e. “Bloody Mary”) he fled to Europe, and while there he ministered to English exiles in Frankfurt, Germany and later in Geneva, Switzerland. Knox studied Bible and theology at the feet of John Calvin. He was a husband to Marjorie Bowes, and after her untimely death, to Margaret Stewart; he was a father to two sons and three daughters. In 1559 he returned to his native Scotland where he courageously advanced the cause of the Reformation as an evangelist and later as the pastor at St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh. By his preaching and teaching, he was able to bring virtually all of Scotland to a thorough-going knowledge of the Lord Jesus Christ and he engendered in the Scots a stalwart resolve to advance Christ’s Kirk (or, Church) here on earth. The rallying cry of the Scottish Presbyterians (i.e. the Covenanters) was “For Christ’s Crown and Covenant.” This motto is directly connected to the preaching of John Knox, but it also expresses how the Scots rejected the claim that a King or Queen could rule over Christ’s Church. Knox and his followers assert that only Jesus Christ is head of the Church (or Kirk). After his death, Knox became widely known as the author of his gripping book, The History of the Reformation in Scotland.
Note: Three additional names could be added to this brief summary–Thomas Cartwright (1535-1603), Andrew Melville (1545-1622), and Samuel Rutherford (1600-1661). Each man made significant contributions to the development and progress of early Presbyterianism in England and Scotland. In time, I intend to add them to this article. ~MJServen
The Westminster Assembly (1643–1649):
The Westminster Assembly (1643-1649)
The Westminster Confession of Faith was composed during a time of intense strife and armed conflict in England (1642-1660). The two warring parties—the Royalists who were led by King Charles I and his son Charles II, and the English Parliament which was dominated by the Puritans, Independents, and Oliver Cromwell—struggled over the theological reform of the Anglican Church and the right of the reigning monarch to impose a religious system upon the English people. The English Civil War arose from this contentious struggle. In the midst of this conflict the English Parliament urged the writing of a statement of faith that would more clearly reflect the doctrines of the Protestant Reformation. As a result, the Westminster Assembly was made up of English pastors, scholars, and laymen; which consisted of 121 Divines, 10 Lords, and 20 Commoners. Representatives of the Scottish Covenanters were also invited to participate in the debate and formulation of a new Confession of Faith. These sessions were held from July 1, 1643 through February 22, 1649 and took place in St. Margaret’s Chapel, at Westminster Abbey in London, England. Amongst its key documents are a Confession of Faith in thirty-three chapters with numerous proof-texts from Scripture, a Larger Catechism of 196 questions, a Shorter Catechism of 107 questions, a Directory for Public Worship, and a Form of Presbyterial Church Government. Later a Book of Discipline, based on the Second Book of Discipline (1578) crafted by Andrew Melville of Scotland, was added to the Book of Church Order by many Presbyterian denominations to establish a procedure for dealing with church discipline and for settling disputes within the church. A volume containing a metrical version of the Psalms was also approved by the Westminster Assembly to be used in congregational and family worship. The Westminster standards were adopted by the Church of Scotland in 1647 and by the English Parliament in 1649. They are the sole foundational documents for all Presbyterian Churches throughout the world, especially those that are English-speaking. Those who hold to the Westminster Confession of Faith assert that the Bible is the primary standard, and the Confession of Faith and its Catechisms are considered to be a secondary standard.
— The Westminster Confession of Faith & Presbyterianism click here
These three volumes are good places to start for an exploration of the Reformation–they are readable, reliable, and full of interesting anecdotes!
Resources for Further Study:
Atherstone, Andrew. The Reformation: Faith and Flames. Oxford, England: The Lion Press, 2011.
Bainton, Roland. The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Boston, MA: The Beacon Press, 1952.
Daniel, David. William Tyndale: A Biography. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994.
Dawson, Jane. John Knox. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015.
George, Timothy. Theology of the Reformers. Revised Edition. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2013.
Estep, William R. Renaissance & Reformation. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1986.
Kelly, Douglas F. The Emergence of Liberty in the Modern World. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 1992.
Kittelson, James M. Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and his Career. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1986.
Letham, Robert. The Westminster Assembly: Reading its Theology in Historical Context. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2009.
Lindsey, Thomas M. The Reformation: A Handbook. First Published 1882; Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2006.
Marshall, Peter, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Reformation. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2015.
The Confession of Faith and Catechisms. American Edition (1788). Jointly published by Great Commission Publications (PCA) in Atlanta, GA, and the Committee on Christian Education (OPC) in Willow Grove, PA, 2005.
Westminster Confession of Faith. First Published in 1646; Glasgow, Scotland: Free Presbyterian Publications, 1946.
Vollmer, Philip. John Calvin: Man of the Millennium. San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum Inc., 2008.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved
“He made Him who knew no sin to be sin on our behalf, so that we might become the righteousness of God in Him.” 2 Cor. 5:21 (NASB)
Just recently I came across a very fine quote from Dr. J. I. Packer that I had copied out of his book, Knowing God, quite a long time ago. Packer sets forth–in classic Reformed style–the doctrine of propitiation in the sacrificial work of Jesus Christ. The word propitiation (Gk. hilasterion = to conciliate, appease, expiate) refers to the satisfaction of the wrath of God through the death of Christ (See: Rom. 3:25; Heb. 2:17; 1 Jn. 2:2; 1 Jn. 4:10). In short, Jesus becomes sin for his people and satisfies the divine wrath of our Holy God. In addition, he gives to them his righteousness in a “double imputation” (i.e. our sins are imputed to Him, and His righteousness is imputed to us). Consider Packer’s explanation of propitiation:
Dr. J.. I. Packer (1926-2020)
“The basic description of the saving death of Christ in the Bible is as a propitiation, that is, as that which quenched God’s wrath against us by obliterating our sins from His sight. God’s wrath is His righteousness reacting against our unrighteousness; it shows retributive justice. But Jesus Christ has shielded us from the nightmare prospect of retributive justice, in obedience to His Father’s will, and receiving the wages of sin in our place. By this means justice has been done, for the sins of all that will ever be pardoned were judged and punished in the person of God the Son, and it is on this basis that pardon is now offered to us offenders. Redeeming love and retributive justice joined hands, so to speak, at Calvary, for there God showed Himself to be ‘just, and the justifier of him that hath faith in Jesus.’ Do you understand this? If you do, you are now seeing to the very heart of the Christian gospel.”
— Dr. J. I. Packer, Knowing God, 170
Packer’s quote is an excellent reminder to us of the redemptive work that Jesus Christ accomplishes for the sake of his people. The Apostle Paul puts it this way, “Christ redeemed us from the curse of the Law, having become a curse for us–for it is written, ‘Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree'” (Gal. 3:13). Therefore, let us give praise and thanks to Almighty God for sending forth his Son to do for us what we could not do for ourselves. Jesus, by his sacrificial work on the Cross, makes it possible for us to escape the retributive justice of God and live as those who have been redeemed. Soli Deo Gloria!
— Dr. Marcus J. Serven
Here are three books by Dr. J. I. Packer that I treasure. Each one of them is great–but, Knowing God is preeminent!
Sources:
Abbott-Smith, G. A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament. Edinburgh, Scotland: T. & T. Clark Ltd., 1981.
Packer, James I. Knowing God. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1973.
“Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep’s clothing but inwardly are ravenous wolves.” Mathew 7:15
Introduction:
What has caused the rise of heresies, heretics, and the many sectarians who have twisted Scriptural doctrines related to the person of Jesus Christ? This is certainly a valid question to ask and to ponder. Sadly, the true Church has been plagued by heresies, heretics, and sectarians ever since Ascension of Jesus Christ into heaven (Acts 1:9-11). The sudden explosion of erroneous beliefs about Jesus Christ seems to defy explanation! Cyprian (AD c.200-258), however, the wise bishop of Carthage and no stranger to false doctrines, answered this important question in the following way,
Cyprian (AD c.200-258), the Bishop of Carthage
“We must guard against wily trickery and subtle deceit no less than open and obvious perils. And could anything more subtle and wily have been devised than this? The enemy has been exposed and laid low by the coming of Christ, light came to the nations, the sun of salvation shined to save mankind, so that the deaf received the hearing of spiritual grace, the blind opened their eyes to the Lord, the weak recovered strength in eternal health, the lame ran to church, the dumb prayed aloud. Yet, when he saw the idols abandoned and his seats and temples deserted through the host of believers, our enemy thought of a new trick, to deceive the unwary under cover of the name Christian. He invented heresies and schisms to undermine faith, pervert truth, and break unity. Unable to keep us in the dark ways of former error, he draws us into a new maze of deceit. He snatches men away from the Church itself and, just when they think they have drawn near to the light and escaped the night of the world, he plunges them unawares into a new darkness. Though they do not stand by the gospel and discipline and law of Christ, they call themselves Christians. Though they are walking in darkness, they think they are in the light, through the deceitful flattery of the adversary who, as the Apostle said, transforms himself into an angel of light and adorns his ministers as ministers of righteousness who call night day, death salvation, despair hope, perfidy faith, antichrist Christ, cunningly to frustrate truth by their lying show of truth. That is what happens, my brothers, when we do not return to the fount of truth, when we are not looking to the head and keeping the doctrine taught from heaven.”
— Cyprian, The Unity of the Catholic Church, art. 3; “Early Latin Theology” in The Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5.
The Apostle Peter portrays Satan as a “roaring lion”
This candid and compelling analysis by Cyprian exposes the “wily trickery and subtle deceit” of the enemy. Defeated at the Cross, the enemy “thought of a new trick, to deceive the unwary under cover of the name Christian.” And so it is, heresies, heretics, and sectarians have risen up confusing true Christians, and entangling those individuals “into a new maze of deceit.” As Jesus stated, they are “ravenous wolves” who have disguised themselves “in sheep’s clothing” (Matt. 7:15). The Apostle Peter warns, “Be sober-minded; be watchful. Your adversary the devil prowls around like a roaring lion, seeking someone to devour. Resist him, firm in your faith” (1 Pet. 5:8-9a). Therefore, every Christian should make it their goal to know the essential doctrines delivered from Christ and the Apostles so well that erroneous beliefs can be easily spotted and foiled.
A Glossary of Key Words:
— Heresy (Gk. hairesis = lit. “able to choose”; a peculiar opinion, an unorthodox doctrine, a heresy; heresiarch = a founder or leader of a heretical group)
— Orthodox (Gk. orthodoxia = lit. “right opinion”; meaning right belief in contrast to heresy or heterodoxy)
— Heterodox (Gk. heterodoxia = lit. “different opinion”; not conforming to orthodox standards or beliefs in religion)
— Apostasy (Gk. apostosia = the formal disaffiliation of, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person)
— Sectarian (Lat. secta = “party, school, faction” and sectarius = “belonging or pertaining to a schismatic sect”; excessive attachment to a particular sect or party, especially in religion)
The Ancient Heretics and Sectarians:
Below are some of the major heresies, heretics and sectarians who greatly troubled the Christian Church from its beginnings up to the 300’s:
The Ebionites (1st Century-on) — In summary, the Ebionites regarded Jesus as a man upon whom the Spirit of God rested in its fulness. In many ways the Ebonites manifested a view of salvation similar to the Judaizers criticized by Paul in Galatians (e.g. Faith in Jesus + Obedience to the Law = Salvation). H. L. Ellison explains, “The Ebionites exalted the Law, though they considered it contained false pericopes, rejected the Pauline epistles, and regarded Jesus as the son of Joseph and Mary, but elected Son of God at his baptism when he was united with the eternal Christ, who is higher than the archangels, but not divine. This Christ appeared in various figures from Adam on. His work was that of a teacher rather than savior…They…gradually dwindled away, their last remnants being swept away by the Muslim conquest of Syria.” (Ellison, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 326). The Apostle Peter boldly refutes this heresy by declaring, “He himself bore our sins in his body on a tree, that we might die to sin and live to righteousness. By his wounds you have been healed” (1 Pet. 2:24).
Docetism (1st Century-on) — (Gk. dokew = “to seem like”). In other words, Christ only “seemed like” a man. G. W. Grogan describes this heresy in the following manner: “In the history of Christian theology this is the view that Jesus Christ was not a real man, but simply appeared so. This undermines not only the Incarnation, but also the Atonement and Resurrection…The origins of Docetism are not biblical, but Hellenistic and oriental, and are due to the idea that matter is essentially evil and to a particular construction of the doctrine of divine impassibility. Alexandria was a melting-pot of Hellenistic and oriental ideas, and the home of some of the greatest Gnostic teachers.” (Grogan, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 305). For a sharp refutation of this heresy from the New Testament see the following verses: Jn. 1:14, 18; John 8:56-59; Col. 2:9, and Heb. 1:1-3, 8; 2:14-18.
Paul of Samosata (AD d.272)
Adoptianism (1st Century-on) — This is the heretical teaching that Jesus the “Man,” became Jesus the “Christ” at his baptism (Matt. 3:13-17). It has many variations but the most common view teaches that the “Christ” who joined with Jesus at his baptism abruptly left Jesus at the Cross. Essentially, Jesus died as a mere “Man” so that his saving work on the Cross is completely denied. The bodily resurrection of Jesus is also denied by this heresy. Others held that the “Christ” remained with Jesus and allowed him to be resurrected from the dead. Harold H. Rowden describes Adoptianism as, “The view that Jesus was a man of blameless life who became the adoptive Son of God. In the early centuries some maintained that the divine Spirit descended upon Jesus—a man of perfect virtue, sometimes granted to have been born of a virgin—at His baptism, and that He was deified after His resurrection. A form of Adoptianist theology was expounded by Dynamic Monarchians, e.g., Theodotus and Paul of Samosata.” (Rowden, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 13). Jesus himself destroys this false narrative by declaring, “‘I am the Alpha and the Omega,’ says the Lord God, ‘who is and who was and who is to come, the Almighty’” (Rev. 1:8).
The Parthenon in Athens, Greece stands as a crumbling monument to the ancient Gnostic mystery religions
Gnosticism — This movement represents Greek philosophy at its highest level. The Gnostics (Gk. gnosis = knowledge) maintained that only initiates who paid a fee to the priests of the Greek “mystery religions” could understand the truth about spiritual matters. The essential idea of Gnosticism was that all “flesh” (Gk. sarx) was evil, and that all “spirit” (Gk. pneuma) was righteous. Therefore, a genuine “seeker” of spiritual truth could find the deep realities of life through a series of personal experiences, either by self-indulgence in sensuality (Hedonism), or by self-denial from all pleasure (Asceticism). It was the “personal experience” of the “secret knowledge” that was the measure of all reality to the devotee of Gnosticism. Applied to Christianity, Gnosticism doubted the full deity of Jesus Christ, and at other times doubted the full humanity of Jesus Christ. The Apostle John writes rebuttals against both errors—the denial of Jesus Christ’s deity (cf. 1 John 2:22), and the denial of Jesus Christ’s humanity (cf. 1 John 4:2-3). Either way, the views of the Gnostic Christians can only be described as heresy. John certainly had the Gnostics in mind when he wrote John 1:1, and 1:14-18. The Greek term “Word” (Gk. Logos) is a Gnostic term that represents an impersonal idea that bridges the gap between God and humanity. John co-opted this term, “the Word,” by declaring that “the Word became flesh and dwelt among us.” Such a bold proclamation would be inconceivable to the serious Gnostic! This, however, was divine truth to the Christian believer. The Apostle John, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, “took every thought captive” by strategically utilizing the very terms of Gnosticism and giving them a Christian meaning (cf. 2 Cor. 10:3-6). Moreover, the Apostle Paul warns, “See to it that no one takes you captive by philosophy and empty deceit, according to human tradition, according to the elemental spirits of the world, and not according to Christ” (Col. 2:8).
The Heretic Marcion was labled “the first-born of Satan” by Polycarp, the Bishop of Smyrna
Marcion (AD 85-160) — A Roman Presbyter and in time declared to be a heretic. He was raised in Sinope on the Black Sea, but traveled to Rome and settled there in the 140’s. He stressed that the god of the Old Testament was somewhat “evil” and the God of the New Testament was perfectly “good.” Marcion also rejected the full humanity of Jesus, preferring instead to think of Jesus as only appearing to be like a man (i.e Docetism). Hence, Marcion rejected the birth narratives of the gospels in Matthew and Luke, and claimed that Jesus appeared as a fully-grown man in the fifteenth year of Tiberius. For these heresies Marcion was excommunicated from the church of Rome in AD 144. W. Ward Gasque wrote, “Marcion stressed the radical nature of Christianity vis-a-vis Judaism. In his theology there existed a total discontinuity between the OT and the NT, between Israel and the church, and even between the god of the OT and the Father of Jesus. Jesus came to reveal the true God, who was totally unknown up to the Incarnation. The god of the OT, the demiurge, an inferior being who created the material world and ruled over it, was not exactly an evil being, but he was not good in the same sense as the God and Father of Jesus, a God of love and grace” (Gasque, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 629-630). In approximately AD 150 Marcion set forth a canon of approved writings for his followers which was in contrast to the widely-accepted books of the New Testament. This led later to efforts by the historic-orthodox Church to clearly set forth the twenty-seven books of the New Testament as an officially approved list (i.e a “Canon”) at the Council of Hippo (AD 393) and later at the Council of Carthage (AD 397). Polycarp the bishop of Smyrna steadfastly referred to Marcion as “The first-born of Satan,” and both Tertullian (Against Marcion) and Irenaeus (Against Heresies) wrote extensive treatises against Marcion and his heretical notions. By the end of the second century Marcion’s movement lost its strength and it ultimately disappeared. The Apostle Paul instructed the churches to, “…avoid foolish controversies, genealogies, dissensions, and quarrels about the law, for they are unprofitable and worthless. As for a person who stirs up division, after warning him once and then twice, have nothing more to do with him, knowing that such a person is warped and sinful; he is self-condemned” (Tit. 3:9-10).
The ecstatic visions of female prophetesses was a key feature in Montanist beliefs
Montanus (he started prophesying in AD 157) — Montanus was a self-proclaimed prophet from Phrygia who advocated a life of rigid asceticism. He associated with two prophetesses by the name of Maximilla and Priscilla. All three prophets claimed to be mouth-pieces of the Paraclete (Gk. paracletes, or the Holy Spirit) and brought forth the New Prophecy. They also claimed that they could forgive sins. Montanus had a very popular following, but eventually ran into trouble with the church authorities and was excommunicated. At the Synod of Iconium in AD 230 it was ruled that Monanist baptism was not valid. In many ways, Montanus could be classified as a fanatic, or sectarian, rather than a heretic; although it must be admitted that he was excommunicated from the true Church. His teachings drew many away from Christ to more of an “elitist mentality” that put his followers over and above other Christians. Clearly, this was not the teaching of Jesus Christ who urged his disciples to a life of humility and service to others (John 13:12-16). Central to Montanist doctrine was the imminency of Christ’s Return, the forbidding of remarriage (one marriage only), the keeping of regular fasts, withdrawal from the world, and being willing to die as a martyr. The saying of “Do not hope to die in bed…but as a martyr” was typical of the high commitment to self-denial practiced by his followers. Tertullian of Carthage was one of the more distinguished followers of Montanism. Overtime, however, Tertullian reformed the excesses of Montanism, so much so that the entire movement became known as Tertullianism. The Apostle Paul warns, “But even if we or an angel from heaven should preach to you a gospel contrary to the one we preached to you, let him be accursed” (Col. 1:8).
Novatian of Rome (AD c.200-d. 258)
Novatian (c.200-d.258) — Novatian founded a small puritanical sect in Rome which took a hard line against those who had lapsed under persecution. The Novatianists prided themselves on being the “pure ones” (Lat. cathari) and therefore did not associate with many other Christians, especially those who had forsaken Christ during the persecutions (Lat. lapsi). In this way they were schismatic. H. D. McDonald writes, “Novatian demanded that the Christians who had apostatized during the Decian persecutions (AD 249-250) should not be welcomed back into the fellowship of the church. Novatian’s group formed themselves into their own party, under strict discipline. This separatist movement continued for many centuries. Their orthodoxy was never in doubt.” (McDonald, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 717). Novation was a gifted theologian who was known for his writings in favor of the Trinity. He was strongly orthodox in theology, but extremely puritanical in practice. As a result, the Novatianists formed their own churches and separated from churches they considered to be “impure.” Novatian died as a martyr during the Valerian persecution in AD 258. The Apostle Paul exhorts, “Therefore let no one pass judgement on you in questions of food and drink, or with regard to a festival or a new moon or a Sabbath. These are a shadow of the things to come, but the substance belongs to Christ” (Col. 2:16-17).
Mani led many astray into his self-styled and syncretistic religion. Eventually, his favor with the Persian King evaporated and he was condemned and executed. Augustine was able to escape this “dark alley of deceit” and come to faith in Jesus Christ.
Mani (AD c.216-277) — Mani was the founder and leader of the group called the Manichaeans. Mani lived in Babylonia, but traveled extensively throughout Persia, India, and the Roman Empire once he found favor with the Persian King. His peculiar doctrines were a mixture of Persian religions, astrology, and some elements of biblical Christianity. He asserted that Jesus was “the Brilliant Light,” but he denied Jesus’ full deity. Asceticism was a hallmark of this group. J. N. Birdsall comments about Manichaean beliefs with this description, “The doctrine though claimed as a system is highly mythological. Two principles, Light and Dark, God and Matter, are eternal. The invasion of the Light led to the saving expedition of the Primeval Man, some of whose substance remained imprisoned in matter after his return. The creation of sun, moon, stars, and plant life was part of a plan to redeem this imprisoned Light. The appearance of Adam was a counterplot to retain Light imprisoned, through reproduction: “Jesus the Brilliant Light” redeemed him by a vision. The Jesus of the gospels is but an instance of the suffering of imprisoned Light in matter. The religious practice of Mani’s followers (among whom the “elect” or “righteous” ate no meat and abstained from sexual life) was an ascetic means of continuing the process of gradual liberation.” (Birdsall, New International Dictionary of the Christian Church, 624-625). In some ways, the Manichaeans are forerunners of the modern-day Bahai movement which has a similar set of beliefs. Augustine spent many years as a follower of the teachings of Mani before he finally came to a saving knowledge of Jesus Christ. In particular, he could never reconcile the dualistic nature of Light and Dark (i.e. Good and Evil). He slowly came to realize from his study of the Holy Scriptures that God is entirely good and righteous all together (1 Jn. 1:5; Jam. 1:13-15), that the “problem with evil” (Lat. theodicy) is thoroughly explained by the Fall of Adam and Eve (Gen. 3:1-24), and that the passing of the sin nature (the Imputation of Sins) to all of their descendants is a necessary consequence of the Fall (Rom. 5:12-19). Every human being inherits the sin nature (Original Sin) of Adam and Even, and each person is responsible for their own sins (Rom. 1:18-20; Eph. 2:1-3). The Prophets and the Apostles declare that it is only by the gracious substitutionary work of Jesus Christ on the Cross that a person can be delivered from the penalty and power of sin (Isa. 53:4-6; Rom. 3:23-26; Eph. 2:4-10; Tit. 3:4-7; 1 Pet. 2:24-25; 1 Jn. 1:7 and 2:1-2).
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Part 2 of “Ancient Heretics and Sectarians” is under preparation and will cover heresies from AD 300 up to AD 451 (the Council of Chalcedon).
Resources for Further Study:
These three valuable books were a great help to me in navigating through the complicated maze of ancient heresies, heretics, and sectarians.
Bettenson, Henry and Chris Maunder, eds. Documents of the Christian Church. Fourth Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.
Brown, Harold O. J. Heresies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy from the Apostles to the Present. New York, NY: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1984.
Christy-Murray, David. A History of Heresy. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1976.
Douglas, J. D. ed. New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.
“Adoptianism” by Harold H. Rowdon
“Apostasy” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
“Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
“Cyprian” by David F. Wright
“Docetism” by G. W. Grogan
“Ebonites” by H. L. Ellison
“Gnosticism” by Edwin Yamauchi
“Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
“Irenaeus” by David F. Wright
“Jesus Christ” by F. F. Bruce
“Justin Martyr” by G. L. Carey
“Lapsi” by David F. Wright
“Manichaeism” by J. N. Birdsall
“Marcion” by W. Ward Gasque
“Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
“Monarchianism” by Samual J. Mikolaski
“Montanism” by H. D. McDonald
“Novatus” by J. G. G. Norman
“Orthodoxy” by Keith J. Hardman
“Tertullian” by David F. Wright
Dowley, Tim. The History of Christianity: A Lion Handbook. Revised Edition. Oxford, UK: Lion Publishing, 1990.
Greenslade, Stanley L., ed. Early Latin Theology: Selections From Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose and Jerome. Library of Christian Classics, Vol. 5. Philadelphia, PA: The Westminster Press, 1956.
Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History. Carlisle, PA: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980.
Kelly, John N. D. Early Christian Doctrines. Second Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1958.
Lane, Anthony N. S. A Concise History of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.
Woodbridge, John D. ed. Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.
“John and the End of the Apostolic Age” by Leon Morris
“Paul and the Missionary Enterprise” by F. F. Bruce
“Cyprian of Carthage” by Michael A. Smith
“Irenaeus: Adversary of the Gnostics” by Everett Ferguson
“Justin Martyr: Defender of the Faith” by Edwin M. Yamauchi
“Tertullian and Western Theology” by Gerald L. Bray
Workman, Herbert B. Persecution in the Early Church. Bloomington, IN: Warhorn Media, Reprint, 2014.
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved
“And we know that all things work together for good to those who love God, to those who are the called according to His purpose.” Romans 8:28
Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven
John Calvin as a young man (c. 1533)
In his twenty-third year John Calvin (1509-1564) experienced a “sudden conversion” (c.1532). Through the work of the Holy Spirit he came to understand the depth of his own sin, and his need for a Savior. In short, the Lord changed his heart and he was born again (cf. John 3:5; Titus 3:4-7). He had become a disciple of Jesus Christ, and his everyday practices, his purpose in life, and his future plans were all thoroughly transformed by the Lord. He became a regular attender at an underground church that had secretly begun to assemble for worship in Paris. He quietly led Bible studies and sought to disciple new believers. During the early days of the French Reformation it was dangerous to profess faith in Jesus Christ and to attend an illegal church. Only participation in the Roman Catholic Church was permitted; all other church services and religious gatherings were prohibited.
Pierre Robert Olivetan–John Calvin’s older cousin
At that time Calvin had just finished his law degree at the University of Orleans. Due to his conversion, however, he determined to change his focus from law to studying theology at the University of Paris. He hoped to become a teacher of the Bible and a theological writer for the cause of Jesus Christ. While at the University, he renewed his friendship with a number of old friends from his hometown of Noyon. He also reconnected with his older cousin, Pierre Robert Olivetan (c.1506-1538) who would translate the Bible into French (1535). Calvin would write the Preface to the translation. In particular, he became a close companion of Nicholas Cop, who was the older brother of his friend Michel Cop. Nicholas Cop had the unique privilege of being selected by Francis I, the King of France, to become the Rector of the University of Paris. In this prestigious role he served as a leader of all the students and all the faculties of the colleges that made up the University.
On All Saint’s Day, November 1, 1533, Nicholas Cop was required to give an address, or a sermon, to the assembled faculty, students, and the entire religious community. His sermon was based on Matthew 5:3, “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.” In it he contrasted the righteousness of keeping the law, which man cannot fulfill, with the saving merits of Jesus Christ. He also encouraged personal study of the Bible and the application of its lessons to all of life. This was more than the Roman Catholic clergy at the Cathedral School of the Sorbonne could tolerate, and they rose-up in anger charging him with “Heresy!” They also brought charges before the French Parliament. Warned of his imminent arrest, Nicholas Cop fled the city of Paris for fear of his life. Unable to apprehend Cop, the religious authorities began searching about for anyone else who might have been associated with Cop and the Protestant movement. It became known through various sources that Calvin had assisted in writing the sermon given by Cop in the University Chapel. As a result, they pursued him so that he could be arrested, tried, and imprisoned.
One artist’s rendition of John Calvin escaping from Paris disguised as a vine-dresser
Late one evening the police came to Calvin’s lodgings to seize him. As they were pounding at the door his friends distracted the authorities with conversation. In God’s providence, Calvin was able to escape out the second-story window while a roommate lowered him down on bed sheets that were tied together into a rope. Once the police came into his room, they found a manuscript of Cop’s sermon in Calvin’s own handwriting. This confirmed their suspicion that Calvin was involved with the writing of Cop’s sermon. He now was a fugitive whose name was known to the religious authorities. His lot was permanently cast, and from this point on he was identified as a prominent leader within the Protestant Reformation.
Margaret of Navarre
Calvin fled into the night in his bedclothes and escaped the next morning through the city gates dressed in the garment of a vine-dresser. Later he sought refuge from Margaret of Navarre (1492-1549), the King’s sister, who was sympathetic to the Protestant cause. The timid and mild-mannered John Calvin could no longer remain in the shadows. Although this was a very difficult time, God used all of these circumstances to further shape his character and to strengthen his courage. In time, he would become one of the foremost leaders of the Protestant Reformation. Indeed, “all things worked together for good” in his life—even those events that were frightening and greatly troublesome. Soli Deo Gloria! May God be praised!
An Addendum: Emmauel Stickelberger, the preeminent biographer of Calvin, notes, “Some, not all, among the more recent students of Calvin question the Reformer’s authorship of the Rectorial address of Cop, and therefore also Calvin’s flight. Their reasons are not convincing. Calvin’s contemporary and successor, Theodore Beza, has reported both incidents as facts in his, the oldest, Calvin biography. On the MS. fragment of the address by Cop which the Geneva Library guards, there stand the words written by an old hand, “Haec Johannes Calvinus propria manu decripsit, et es auctor.” Doumergue, who is over-accurate, has not the slightest doubt (Vol. 1, pp. 331f.) Beza describes this incident in detail in his Vita Calvini.” (See: Stickelberger, Calvin: A Life, Note 7 and 8, 155-156)
The entire text of the inflammatory sermon given by Nicholas Cop is included as an Appendix in the 1536 Edition of the Institutes; also here are two of my favorite biographies of John Calvin
Resources for Further Study:
Beza, Theodore. The Life of John Calvin: A Modern Translation of the Classic. Darlington, England: Evangelical Press, 1997.
Carr, Simonetta. John Calvin: Christian Biographies for Young Readers. Grand Rapids, MI: Reformation Heritage Books, 2008.
d’Aubigne, Merle J. H. The History of the Reformation in the Time of Calvin. Four Volumes. New York, NY: Robert Carter and Sons, 1863; Harrisonburg, VA: Sprinkle Publications, Reprint, 2000.
Stickelberger, Emanuel. Calvin: A Life. Translated by David Georg Gelzer. London, England: James Clarke & Company, 1959.
Van Halsema, Thea. This Was John Calvin. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing Company, 1959.
Vollmer, Philip; with contributions by J. I. Good, and Joseph C. Morecraft, III. John Calvin: Man of the Millennium. Edited by Wesley Strackbein. San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum, Inc, 2008.
Walker, Williston. John Calvin: Organizer of Reformed Protestantism. New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1904. Reprint, New York: Schocken Books, 1969.
Here are three books that would be suitable for children and young adults–each one includes the story of Calvin’s escape from Paris
Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin
The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved
