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How the Protestant Reformers are Still Changing the World

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The Council of Nicaea (AD 325) and the Development of the Nicene Creed

July 23, 2025 /

“I believe…in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of his Father before all worlds, God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God…” The Nicene Creed (Modern Version)

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

For the past 1,700 years the Nicene Creed has stood as a formidable bulwark against theological heresy. The Christian Church has recited it in our worship services and studied its doctrinal formulations in our theology classes. The first of the Ecumenical Creeds, it set the standard for how we answer the question, “Who is Jesus Christ?” Over time its affirmations have become known as settled doctrine and as a result it has saved many a Christian from being lured into erroneous beliefs about the Lord Jesus Christ. Let us give thanks to God for the theological precision of the Nicene Creed and its careful commitment to the authority of Holy Scripture. Under what circumstances did it come about?

The Historical Context:

Called by Emperor Constantine in AD 325, this council focused on two significant problems within the Church: (1) the Melitian schisms (i.e. the re-admittance of lapsed Christians from the Diocletian persecution), (2) and the Arian crisis (i.e. the rejection of Jesus Christ as the eternal Son of God). The decisions made at the Council of Nicaea proved to be pivotal in answering these two conflicts. Dr. John H. Leith, the noted Church historian, described the context of the Council of Nicaea especially in relation to the Arian crisis in this way: 

Dr. John H. Leith

“The occasion was the dispute concerning the theology of Arius, which raised in acute form the question of the meaning and significance of Jesus Christ. The Christian community had been accustomed to regard him as God as well as man. Arian theology forced the Christian Church to say in what sense he was God. Arius insisted that the Word or Son was a creature, that he was made by God, that he had a beginning, and that he was subject to change. This means, as Athanasius pointed out, that the Son does not have full and accurate knowledge of the Father. In Jesus Christ, man is not really confronted by God. The Nicene Creed insisted that God has fully come into human history in Jesus Christ. It sought to make this clear through certain key phrases in the creed: ‘That is, of the essence of the Father’; ‘True God from true God’; ‘Begotten, not created’; ‘Of one essence [reality] with the Father’.”

— John H. Leith, Creeds of the Churches, 28-29.

Constantine (c.274/280-337)

Beginning on May 20th, AD 325, the council included three hundred and eighteen representatives of which most were from the Greek-speaking East. The Latin-oriented West was only represented by four or five bishops and two priests from Rome; although Bishop Hosius (AD c.256-357) from Cordova, Spain presided over the entire council. Regarding the question of the “lapsed” (Lat. lapsi), the council determined that these individuals should be restored to fellowship within the church upon the confession of their sin and a demonstration of genuine repentance. Church officers who “lapsed” was a  more complicated problem. Generally, it became the practice that they could be restored to fellowship within the Church, but not restored to their former offices.

The second question, however, proved to be much more difficult to resolve. The Arians believed that Jesus Christ was a “little god” who was created by the Father, and therefore was subordinate to the Father. After rigorous debate the council concluded that Jesus Christ was of the “same nature” (Gk. homoousias) as the Father, rather than being of “like nature” (Gk. homoiousias) to the Father. Briefly stated, Jesus was recognized as the eternal Son of God, sharing the same essential nature as God the Father. Arianism was declared to be a heresy. The statement “I and the Father are one” (in John 10:30) was clearly to be understood as a reference to the Father and the Son sharing the “same essential nature.” The Nicene Creed was formed out of this theological disputation and affirmed the doctrine that Jesus Christ was “of the same nature” with the Father. 

Eusebius of Caesarea

Eusebius of Caesarea (AD c.265-c.339) submitted a baptismal creed from his own city as a basis for the final form of the creed. Athanasius (AD c.296-373), the great defender of Nicene Christology, attended this council as an assistant to his mentor, Bishop Alexander (d.328) of Alexandria. Arius (c.250-d.336) and his supporters, notably Eusebius of Nicomedia (d.342) also attended the council, but were excommunicated as a result. Arianism, though, remained popular within the Empire until it was finally repudiated at the 1st Council of Constantinople in AD 381. Hence the Creed that we now recite is sometimes referred to as the Niceo-Constantinopolitan Creed. Despite the defeat of Arianism at Constantinople (AD 381), this false system of belief claiming that Jesus Christ “was created” lives on in the heretical teachings of the modern-day Jehovah Witnesses who hold that Jesus Christ was the Father’s first created creature. 

Here is a fragment in Greek from the earliest known copy of the Nicene Creed (kept at the John Rylands Library in Manchester, England)

The Development of the Creed: 

During the heated debate at the council of Nicaea, Eusebius of Caesarea artfully suggested the adoption of the baptismal creed from his own church as a formula of orthodoxy. The connection between the wording in the baptismal creed of Caesarea and the future Nicene Creed can clearly be seen. The Caesarean Creed reads as follows, 

“We believe in one God, the Father All-sovereign, the maker of things visible and invisible; And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Word of God, God of God, Light of Light, Life of Life, Son only-begotten, Firstborn of all creation, begotten of the Father before all ages, through whom also all things were made; who was made flesh for our salvation and lived among men, and suffered, and rose again on the third day, and ascended to the Father; We believe also in one Holy Spirit.” 

The creed presented by Eusebius was certainly orthodox, but most delegates at the council recognized that it did not deal explicitly with the Arian position—and that was the very issue that must be addressed. Thus, it was taken as a foundational document, and after several additions was put forward by the council in this revised form (additions and alterations are in italics):

“We believe in one God the Father All-sovereign, maker of all things visible and invisible; And in the one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father, only-begotten, that is, of the substance of the Father, God of God, Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten not made, of one substance with the Father, through whom all things are made, things in heaven and things on the earth; who for us men and for our salvation came down and was made flesh, and became man, suffered, and rose on the third day, ascended into the heaven, is coming to judge living and dead. And in the Holy Spirit. And those that say ‘There was when he was not,’ and that, ‘He came into being from what-is-not,’ or those that allege, that the son of God is ‘Of another substance or essence’ or ‘created,’ or ‘changeable’ or ‘alterable,’ these the Catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes.” 

(Both citations are from Bettenson and Mauder, Documents of the Christian Church, 4th Edition, 26-27)

Each one of these three volumes gives the text of the Nicene Creed and speaks to the reasons why it was absolutely necessary to formulate it.

A Theological Analysis of the Nicene Creed:

As time progressed, the anathemas at the end of the Nicene Creed dropped away. The version of the Nicene Creed listed below comes from the text used by Cyril of Jerusalem (AD c.310-386) in his Catechetical Lectures on the theology of the Creed. This version also reflects the additions made at the First Council of Constantinople in AD 381. Note: The text of the Nicene Creed is in quotes; and my theological comments are in bold type.

— “We believe in one God the Father All-sovereign [Gk. pantokratora], maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and invisible.” (Affirming that God the Father is the Creator of all things, and rejecting the errors of Gnosticism and the Greek mystery religions that  teach there are many so-called “gods” who are only known through a “secret knowledge.”)

— “And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten [Gk. monogenes] Son of God,” (Affirming the eternal Sonship of Jesus Christ, and rejecting the false belief of the Ebionites that Jesus was only a deeply spiritual man) 

— “Begotten [Gk. gennethenta pro panton ton aionion] of the Father before all the ages,” (Affirming the pre-existence of Jesus Christ, and rejecting the false narrative of the Arians that Jesus was the Father’s first created creature) 

— “Light of Light, true God of true God,” [Gk. phos et phosos, Theon alethinon ek Theou alethinou] (Teaching that Jesus Christ is of the same nature and essence [Gk. hypostasis or ousia] of God the Father, and rejecting the false teaching that Jesus was only “like” God but not truly God)

— “begotten not made,” [Gk. gennethenta ou poiethenta] (Affirming the preexistence of Jesus Christ before all time, and denying the false belief of the Arians that there was a time when Jesus Christ “was not”) 

— “of one substance with the Father,” [Gk. homoousian to patri] (Essentily teaching that Jesus Christ is “coequal, consubstantial, and coeternal” [from the Confession of Chalcedon in AD 451] with the Father, against the erroneous teaching of Arianism and Eunomianism [a later variant of Arianism in the 4th Century], which asserts that Jesus Christ is only “like” God the Father but not of the same essence [i.e. that the Son of  God was subordinate to the Father]. While it is true that Jesus subordinated himself to the Father’s will [cf. Luke 22:42], this in no way takes away any claim to his essential nature of being equal with God the Father [cf. John 1:1-5; 1:14, 18; 5:18; 8:56-59; 10:30-33; 17:1-5; Phil. 2:9-11; Col. 2:9; Heb. 1:1-3])  

— “through whom all things were made; who for us men and for our salvation came down from heavens, and was made flesh [Gk. sarkothenta] of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, and became man [Gk. enanthropesanta],” (Stating that Jesus Christ participated in the creation of “all things” in the beginning, and that he “was made flesh…and became man” through the Incarnation by means of the Virgin Birth. These affirmations stood against the errors of Monophysitism [Jesus has only one nature—a divine nature] and Adoptionism [Jesus only became the Son of God at his baptism])

— “and was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered and was buried,” (Affirming the doctrine of the Substitutionary Atonement by use of the words “was crucified for us,” and denying the erroneous beliefs of the Ebionites [Jesus was merely a teacher, but not a Savior], the Sabellians [Jesus was only the current manifestation of God; i.e. Modalistic Monarchians] who rejected the Trinity, and the Pelagians [Jesus was only an example of righteousness, but not truly a Savior] who rejected the necessity of Jesus’ death for the forgiveness of sins)

— “and rose again on the third day according to the Scriptures, and ascended into the heavens, and sitteth on the right hand of the Father, and cometh again with glory to judge the living and dead, of whose kingdom there shall be no end.” (Teaching the bodily resurrection of Jesus Christ, and his ascension into Heaven to rule over his Kingdom, and rejecting the Docetists who taught that Jesus only “appeared to be like” God. Note the magisterial progression: “…rose again…ascended…sitteth…cometh again…”)

— “And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Life-giver, that proceedeth from the Father (Affirming the eternal procession of the Holy Spirit from the Father [this phrase was added in AD 381 at the 1st Council of Constantinople], and denying the erroneous teaching of the Sabellians that the Holy Spirit was only the “divine will” of the Father rather than the third member of the Trinity)

— (“and the Son”) [Lat. filioque] (The Filioque clause was formally added to the Nicene Creed at the Third Counsel of Toledo in AD 589. It must be acknowledged, however, that well-regarded Church Fathers such as Tertullian, Jerome, Ambrose, Augustine, and Cyril of Alexandria all affirmed that the Holy Spirit proceeded from the Father and the Son long before Toledo in AD 589. See John 14:26 and 15:26 for context)

— “who with Father and Son is worshipped together and glorified together, who spake by the prophets.” (Teaching that God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit are all worthy of worship, in contrast to the Sabellians [i.e. Modalistic Monarchians] who reject the doctrine of the Trinity) 

— “In one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church: We acknowledge one baptism unto remission of sins. We look for a resurrection of the dead, and the life of the age to come.” (Affirming the true spiritual unity of the Church of Jesus Christ even in times of intense persecution, against the sectarian practices of Montanism [i.e. the visible church must be a pure church] and the followers of Novatian of Rome [Lat. cathari = “the pure ones”] who would not allow any of the “lapsed” to ever rejoin the Church)  

(“The Nicene Creed” – the text is cited by Bettenson and Mauder, Documents of the Christian Church, 4th Edition, 27-28)

Its Relevance for Today: 

Dr. Mark A. Noll, a contemporary evangelical historian from Regent College, addresses the ongoing relevance of the Nicene Creed by stating, 

Dr. Mark A. Noll

“The Nicene Creed has remained for nearly seventeen centuries a secure foundation for the church’s theology, worship, and prayer. Not only does it succinctly summarize the facts of biblical revelation, but it also stands as a bulwark against the persistent human tendency to prefer logical deductions concerning what God must be like and how he must act to the lived realities of God’s self-disclosure. And it powerfully restates the realities of Christ’s divine nature, his incarnation as a human being, and the work of salvation he accomplishes for his people. The turning point in Christian history represented by the Nicene Creed was the church’s critical choice for the wisdom of God in preference to human wisdom. Theologically considered, no decision could ever be more important.”

— Mark Noll, Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, 59.

Certainly, the Christian Church should gratefully acknowledge the abundant blessings that have come from the hard-fought debates and thoughtful conclusions that are found in the Nicene Creed. The precise theological formulations contained in it have been recognized over time as settled doctrine. In other words, the affirmations contained in the Nicene Creed are an accurate summary of the teachings of Holy Scripture (i.e orthodoxy = “the right opinion”), and they are a tested means of measuring theological error (i.e. heterodoxy = “differing in opinion”). Over the course of a year it is profitable for all Christians to recite the Nicene Creed in our worship services and to study it in our classes, knowing that previous generations of Bible-believing Christians have clung to its affirmations as we must do as well. 

What actually happened at the Council of Nicaea? It would be difficult to find better resources than these three books that go into great detail about its actual proceedings–all are winners!

Resources for Further Study: 

Berkhof, Louis. The History of Christian Doctrines. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1937.

Bettenson, Henry and Chris Maunder, eds. Documents of the Christian Church. Fourth Edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011. 

Boer, Harry R. A Short History of the Early Church. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1976.

Boyle, Isaac. “A Historical View of the Council of Nice” in The Ecclesiastical History of Eusebius Pamphilus. Grand Rapids, MI: Reprint, Baker Book House, 1992.

Brown, Harold O. J. Heresies: The Image of Christ in the Mirror of Heresy and Orthodoxy from the Apostles to the Present. New York, NY: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1984. 

Cunningham, William. Historical Theology. Volume 1. First Published in 1862; Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1960.

Douglas, J. D., gen. ed. The New International Dictionary of the Christian Church. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1978.

  • “Adoptianism” by Harold H. Rowdon
  • “Arianism” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
  • “Athanasian Creed” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
  • “Athanasius” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
  • “Christology” by Samuel J. Mikolaski
  • “Constantinople, First Council of (381)” by G. T. D. Angel
  • “Constantine the Great” by David F. Wright
  • “Docetism” by G. W. Grogan
  • “Donatists” by David F. Wright
  • “Ebonites” by H. L. Ellison
  • “Eusebius of Caesarea” by J. G. G. Norman
  • “Eusebius of Nicomedia” by Peter Toon
  • “Gnosticism” by Edwin Yamauchi
  • “Heresy” by Stephen S. Smalley
  • “Holy Spirit” by Leon Morris
  • “Lapsi” by David F. Wright
  • “Marcion” by W. Ward Gasque
  • “Martyr, Martyrology” by Ralph P. Martin
  • “Monarchianism” by Samual J. Mikolaski
  • “Monophysitism” by George Giacumakis, Jr.
  • “Monothelites” by H. D. McDonald
  • “Nicea, Council of (325)” by G. L. Carey
  • “Nicene Creed” by G. L. Carey
  • “Nestorianism, Nestorius” by Peter Toon
  • “Pelagianism” by David F. Wright
  • “Valentinus” by Clyde Curry Smith

Kelly, John N. D. Early Christian Doctrines. Second Edition. New York, NY: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1958. 

Lane, Anthony N. S. A Concise History of Christian Thought. Revised Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006.

Leith, John H. Creeds of the Churches: A Reader in Christian Doctrine from the Bible to the Present. Third Edition. Louisville, KY: John Knox Press, 1982.

Morecraft III, Joseph C. 2,000 Years of Christian Theology. San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum, Inc., 2012.

Noll, Mark A. Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1997.  

Rushdoony, Rousas John. The Foundations of Social Order: Studies in the Creeds and Councils of the Early Church. Vallecito, CA: Ross House Books, 1968. 

Schaff, Philip. The Creeds of Christendom. 3 Volumes. Sixth Edition. Revised by David S. Schaff, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1998.

Seeberg, Reinhold. Text-Book of the History of Doctrines. Translated by Charles E. Hay. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1952.

Here are three additional volumes that analyze the Nicene Creed in much broader terms–(1) how it confronts damnable heresies, (2) how it solves political struggles, and (3) how it challenges Greek philosophical presuppositions.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved

Another Semester Completed at Redeemer Theological Academy!

July 15, 2025 /
Here is a normal Thursday morning class at Redeemer Theological Academy–I am being peppered with questions by our eager students!

Below are a few pictures from our post-semester celebration at Rudy’s BBQ here in Austin, TX on May 15th. In these pictures some of us were caught with our mouths full of food–nevertheless a good time was had by all! Not everyone from our class was able to attend this celebratory BBQ. Typically, our class size was 20 students each week. The Lord continues to prosper this educational ministry of our church. We look forward to what He will do in the semesters that lay ahead. 

This past year (2024-2025) we studied the “History of the Early Church.” Starting with the Apostolic Age we worked our way through the key personalities, significant events, and important doctrinal formulations of the first four and a half centuries of the Church of Jesus Christ (up to the Council of Chalcedon in A.D. 451). It was an exciting study, and one that brought about a lot of fervent discussion and spiritual growth. We also read the Early Church Fathers and Augustine’s Confessions. Both volumes were outstanding!

In addition, Mr. Max Smith taught a class on “Survey of the New Testament Scriptures.” All twenty-seven books were surveyed and discussed. Class size varied between 3-5 students. We appreciate your prayers and encouraging words as we move forward by faith at Redeemer Theological Academy. 

Until next semester,

Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Dr. John MacArthur (1939-2025)

July 15, 2025 /

Dr. John MacArthur, in my opinion, was one of the finest preachers in America. He is now with the Lord having succumbed to the ravages of pneumonia on Monday, July 14, 2025. Over the years I greatly appreciated Pastor MacArthur’s commitment to the full inspiration and inerrancy of the Bible. He popularized expositional preaching (“verse by verse”) at a time when people were wanting topical and applicational preaching. He was also known for his thoughtful commentaries on the New Testament and his many other books.

In particular, MacArthur stoutly led the charge in the 1980’s against the “easy-believism” of modern Evangelicalism by emphasizing the Lordship of Jesus Christ. Moreover in the mid-1990’s, along with Dr. R. C. Sproul, he defended the erosion of the gospel against a resurgent Roman Catholicism. When other Protestant theologians were willing to compromise with the Roman Catholics, MacArthur refused to do so believing that the very essence of the gospel was at stake. Later he wrote against the excesses of Charismatic worship and stood firmly against the overreach of civil government during the Covid crisis.

Even though he was a life-long Baptist (similar to C. H. Spurgeon) and a Dispensational Premillennialist (i.e. holding to a future millennial reign of Christ on the earth), MacArthur firmly adopted the Doctrines of Grace in Reformed theology (i.e. Five-Point Calvinism), oversaw a God-centered worship service each week that was regulated by Scripture, and practiced a Presbyterian form of government within his own local church (i.e. led by elders). The English Puritans were a major influence upon this theology and he delighted in promoting the works of various Puritan authors and sponsoring several conferences on the Puritans. In particular, he appreciated the preaching ministry of Dr. Martyn Lloyd-Jones of the Westminster Chapel in London, England and widely endorsed his sermons and biblical commentaries.

Here are two illustrative quotes that greatly influenced me from MacArthur’s well-regarded book, The Gospel According to Jesus:

“We must remember above all that salvation is a sovereign work of God. Biblically it is defined by what it produces, not by what one does to get it. Works are not necessary to earn salvation. But true salvation wrought by God will not fail to produce the good works that are its fruit (cf. Matthew 7:17). We are God’s workmanship. No aspect of salvation is merited by human works (Titus 3:5-7). Thus salvation cannot be defective in any dimension. As a part of His saving work, God will produce repentance, faith, sanctification, yieldedness, obedience, and ultimately glorification. Since He is not dependent on human effort in producing those elements, an experience that lacks any of them cannot be the saving work of God.”

— John MacArthur, The Gospel According to Jesus, 1st Edition, 33.

Also, consider this forceful quote,

“Thus the test of true faith is this: does it produce obedience? If not, it is not saving faith. Disobedience is unbelief. Real faith obeys.”

— John MacArthur, The Gospel According To Jesus, 1st Edition, 47.

These powerful citations demonstrate MacArthur’s commitment to not separate the believer’s justification from his sanctification. The Christian life embraces both aspects of the sovereign work of God–the forgiveness of our sins by forensic justification and our sanctification by the transforming work of the Holy Spirit. We do not have the freedom to claim Jesus Christ as our Savior while at the same time rejecting Him as our Lord. Both go together and there is no separation.

The massive sanctuary at Grace Community Church seats 3,500 worshippers for each service–and in my experience, it was always full! People are hungry for the Word of God!

My wife and I had the unique privilege of attending Grace Community Church in 1985-1986 when I returned to seminary for further studies in Systematic Theology and New Testament Greek. We heard Dr. MacArthur preach verse by verse through many books of the Bible over that formative year. This was a delight to us and his style of preaching deeply influenced me when I returned to the ministry of the pulpit in 1987. I will always be grateful for his unflagging example of personal devotion to Jesus Christ and his steadfast pastoral leadership.

The Bible affirms the following truth about the death of believers, “And I heard a voice from heaven saying, ‘Write this: Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord from now on.’ ‘Blessed indeed,’ says the Spirit, ‘that they may rest from their labors, for their deeds follow them!'” (Rev. 14:13). Such is now true for Dr. John MacArthur. Although he is absent from the body, he is now present with the Lord (2 Cor. 5:6-9). No doubt, he will be deeply missed! But let us pray that God will raise-up in our own age more preachers with the same gifts and spiritual zeal as Dr. John MacArthur. Soli Deo Gloria!

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

An Addendum: There is a very fine biography of Dr. John MacArthur’s life and ministry written by Iain H. Murray that I would highly recommend.

Here are the details:

Murray, Iain H. John MacArthur: Servant of the Word and Flock. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2011.

Patrick and the Irish Wolfhounds

June 11, 2025 /
The deep verdant green of the Irish countryside is so breathtakingly beautiful!

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“The Lord is my helper; I will not fear; what can man do to me?” Hebrews 13:6

Sometimes a person’s life gets “interrupted” by an event that they did not expect. That certainly happened to Patrick (AD c.389-c.463). When he was just sixteen years old Patrick was suddenly kidnapped by Irish sea-raiders, taken away from his home in England, and sold as a slave. If that difficulty happened to you, you might think that God had somehow “abandoned” you. Patrick would learn, however, that the Lord is in control of all events and that even terrible things that we can’t fully explain are used for “good” in the Christian’s life. God promises in the Bible, “…we know that for those who love God all things work together for good” (Rom. 8:28). This means that we can trust God in the midst of our trials and tribulations. And so, what happened to Patrick now that he was forced to be a slave in Ireland? In God’s providence what “good” could possibly come from all of this? 

This flock of sheep is much like the ones that Patrick carefully shepherded on Skerry Hill

Here is what happened: Once Patrick was sold as a slave, his new master, Michlu, assigned him to work as a shepherd caring for the livestock. He was given a couple of Irish wolfhounds—huge and fierce dogs—to help protect the sheep, hogs, and cows from ravaging wolves. Patrick learned how to manage these dogs by speaking to them in Gaelic, the common language of the Irish people. The dogs learned to trust him, and he learned to trust them—they were a team in protecting the livestock from the wolves. The wolves were especially dangerous during the winter months when in hunger they would attack the livestock. Most times the shepherds were successful at protecting the livestock, but at other times the fierce wolves would be able to carry away the younger members of the flock. Patrick served as a shepherd for six long years. Nevertheless, he always dreamed of returning to his own family in England. One day, he came up with a plan and with the aide of a friend he set in motion his escape from captivity.  

This picture gives the reader some idea of the sheer size of an Irish Wolfhound!

Leaving in the middle of the night he made his way down to the seashore where he planned to flee from Ireland by ship. No one, though, was willing to take him! He noticed that one ship was transporting a cargo of Irish wolfhounds. The sailors found them to be completely unmanageable. Patrick volunteered to care for them. To demonstrate his abilities, he calmed the wild and restless dogs by speaking to them in Gaelic. He also urged the Captain to arrange for their feeding. The dogs calmed down under Patrick’s care and he was taken aboard as a welcome passenger on the ship. Initially he was transported to Spain, but then over time he made his way back to England. What joy it was to be back at home with his father and mother! 

Over the next several years he experienced a reoccurring dream—a voice would say in Gaelic, “Holy Boy, we beseech you to come and walk among us once more.” Patrick understood this to mean that God was calling him to return to Ireland—not to give himself up as a runaway slave, but to minister to the Irish people as a Missionary-Evangelist. After lots of study, prayer, and preparation the church leaders called him to that very task—to take the gospel to Ireland. When Patrick finally arrived in Ireland he was 42 years old (AD 432); this is what happened, 

“…the ship landed off the coast of Dublin. Dublin was not a great city then—it was merely a village. But it was the capital of the province of Wicklow, and it was ruled by a king named Dichu. Again the ship was anchored, and again Patrick and his crew were rowed ashore. “Let us walk to the top of the hill that I see a mile away,” Patrick said. “From there we can see all of this part of the country.” As they walked toward the hill, they saw a group of men waiting there. Then the silence of the morning was shattered by the angry growling of dogs. The sound struck terror in the hearts of Patrick’s companions. Four dogs rushed down the hill toward the defenseless men who carried no swords—merely pilgrim’s staffs.”

“Patrick stood there calmly while the others dropped to their knees in fright. Surely, they thought, these wild dogs would tear them to bits. The dogs—huge, fierce Irish wolfhounds—were snarling as they rushed toward Patrick and his group of frightened men. Then Patrick’s clear voice rang out. He talked to the dogs as he had once talked to the dogs which had helped him guard the swine on Skerry Hill. He talked to them as he had talked to the dogs on Captain Tigras’ ship. And the dogs, hearing the familiar commands in the language they understood, stopped snarling. When Patrick gave a sharp command, they halted. Patrick walked toward them, talking soothingly to them. The dogs dropped to the ground. They whimpered and crawled toward Patrick, and then they arose and licked his outstretched hand.”

A Celtic Cross–clearly symbolizes the sacrificial death of Christ and the compelling testimony of the four Gospels

“The men on the hill had watched all this in amazement. Among them was Dichu, the king, who had taught the dogs to kill his enemies. To Dichu, any strangers who landed on these shores were enemies. But instead of tearing these enemies to bits, the dogs were now allowing themselves to be patted on the head by the leader of this band of strangers. Dichu led his men down the hill. “Who are you?” he asked curiously. Patrick told him. He also told him why he had come to Ireland. “But don’t you know, Patrick,” Dichu said, “that many kings in Ireland have vowed to kill you if you are indeed the one spoken of in the prophecy?” Patrick nodded. “Of course I know that, but I have faith in God.” “Do you believe that your God can protect you against the swords of the Irish kings?” Dichu asked. Patrick smiled. “That is a small thing for God to do,” he said. “I know very little about your God,” Dichu admitted. “I should like to know more. Will you and your band stay with me awhile, and will you tell me of this God of yours?”

— Quentin Reynolds, The Life of Saint Patrick, 131-133

One artist’s depiction of Patrick

Over the next thirty years (AD 432-463) Patrick faithfully shared the gospel with the people of Ireland. Sadly, they were enslaved to idols (false gods) and to evil spirits (demons). The Lord Jesus slowly began to deliver them from their unbelief, forgiving their sins, and giving them new life in Christ. One biographer notes that Patrick was busy “…sowing belief until he brought all the Ulstermen by the net of the gospel to the harbor of life.” In God’s wonderful providence all of the trials and tribulations of Patrick’s life actually equipped him for service as a Missionary-Evangelist to the Irish people. This outcome was the “good” that God had prepared him for. Due to his bold and clear preaching multitudes of Irish people professed their faith in Christ, thousands of baptisms took place, and many churches were established throughout the land. In short, the gospel message went forward in Ireland with great power!

Even though this particular Irish Celtic Church lays in ruins–the Christian faith lives on in Ireland! Jesus declared, “…the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.” (Matt. 16:18b)

Resources for Further Study:

Houghton, S. M. Sketches from Church History: An Illustrated Account of 20 Centuries of Christ’s Power. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1980. 

Marshall, Catharine T. “Patrick: Missionary to the Irish” in Great Leaders of the Christian Church. Edited by John D. Woodbridge. Chicago, IL: Moody Press, 1988.

Neill, Stephen. A History of Christian Missions. Second Edition. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1986.

Olsen, Ted. Christianity and the Celts. Downers Grove, Il: InterVarsity Press, 2003 

Reynolds, Quentin. The Life of Saint Patrick. In the “Landmark Series.” New York, NY: Random House Publishers, 1955.

Swanson, Kevin, ed. “Patrick’s Confessions and Breastplate” in Great Christian Classics: Five Remarkable Narratives of the Faith. Parker, CO: Generations with Vision, 2010. 

Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

The Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved

Cornelis Venema on “The Session of Christ”

June 6, 2025 /

“The LORD says to my Lord: ‘Sit at my right hand, until I make your enemies your footstool’.” Psalm 110:1 

Over the past two weeks as I was preparing to preach on the Ascension of Jesus Christ into heaven (Acts 1:4-11), I came across these two very fine quotes from Dr. Cornelis Venema on “The Session of Christ.” Essentially, the term “Session” (Lat. sessio = a sitting) refers to how Jesus Christ now reigns in heaven over the Kingdom of God here on earth. When Jesus ascended into heaven and sat down at the right hand of God, he not only finished his public ministry (as a Prophet), completed his saving work on the Cross (as a Priest), but he also began to reign over his kingdom (as a King). Moreover, during this time between the resurrection of Christ and the return of Christ the Kingdom of God is growing and expanding (Matt. 13:31-33; Matt. 16:18). In addition, Christ’s enemies are being defeated and the gospel message is spreading throughout the entire world (Matt. 12:29; Luke 10:17-18; John 12:31-32). There may be times of discouragement in life when we lose all hope and can’t see it’s growth. Yet the promise of the Bible is that the Kingdom of God is “in the midst” of us (Luke 17:20-21). Dr. Venema capably expands on these thoughts with these two quotes:

Dr. Cornelis P. Venema

“Just as Christ fulfills all of the Old Testament promises (2 Cor. 1:20), Christ also guarantees the future consummation of all God’s promises by his resurrection from the dead, session at the Father’s right hand, and outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost. These events are disclosed in the New Testament as end-time events, that is, events which mark a decisive turning point in history. These events signal that Christ has been given all authority in heaven and on earth and will reign until all things have been subject to him, including death, the last enemy (1 Cor. 15:25-26). By his resurrection from the dead, Christ has become the ‘first fruits’ of all who will through union with him share in his victory. By his session at the Father’s hand, Christ has been given the keys to unlock God’s plan for history until he is revealed at the ‘last day.’ And by his outpouring of the Holy Spirit, he has entered into the last and most decisive epoch in his church-gathering work which, once completed, will serve to prepare all things for his coming again.” 

— Venema, The Promise of the Future, 8-9

Dr. Venema further explains,

“The biblical revelation regarding the future, therefore, always fixes our attention upon Christ. Just as God’s ways with his people in history in times past have all met in Christ, so all of his ways in the future will meet in Christ. The great event on the horizon of the future, in biblical perspective, is accordingly the event of Christ’s return or ‘Second Coming’. This event is the great future toward which all history is moving. It is the event that gives meaning to present history and which will consummate God’s work of redemption. the entirety of the biblical teaching about the future is intimately linked to the coming of Christ at the end of the present age.”

— Venema, The Promise of the Future, 9

These words–and all of the Scripture passages that back them up–give me hope. All that Jesus said would happen regarding his death and resurrection have come to pass. And now that he reigns over his kingdom (i.e. in his “Session”) we can be confident that it will be fully consummated upon his return. Alleluia!

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Resources for Further Study: 

Elwell, Walter A., ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. 1st Edition. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1984.

  • “Ascension of Christ” by Alexander Ross
  • “Kingdom of Christ, God, Heaven” by George E. Ladd
  • “Millennium, Views of the” by Robert G. Clouse
  • “Offices of Christ” by Robert L. Reymond
  • “Session” by David H. Wheaton
  • “States of Jesus Christ” by Wayne A. Grudem

Venema, Cornelis P. The Promise of the Future. Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2000. 

Venema, Cornelis P. “The Four Main Millennial Views” in These Last Days: A Christian View of History. Edited by Richard D. Phillips and Gabriel N. E. Fluhrer. Co-Published by the Alliance of Confessing Evangelicals (Philadelphia, PA); and P&R Publishing (Phillipsburg, NJ), 2011.

Note: There was a technical problem when I posted my sermon a few days ago and it was not mailed out to my subscribers. You can find it here with this link: A Sermon: “The Glories of Christ’s Ascension” Acts 1:4-11

A Sermon: “The Glories of Christ’s Ascension” Acts 1:4-11

June 4, 2025 /

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“And when he had said these things, as they were looking on, he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight.” Acts 1:9

Just last week on Ascension Day (May 29, 2025) I had the opportunity to preach at our church, Redeemer Presbyterian Church (PCA) here in Austin, TX. We have four pastors at Redeemer, and since I am the one who is “semi-retired” I usually preach once or twice a year. Instead, my role at the church is focused on teaching. I regularly instruct adults in our School of Discipleship classes on Sunday mornings. Beyond that, I am the director of Redeemer Theological Academy teaching college-level courses in Biblical studies, Systematic Theology, and Church History. This suits me quite well, and I am grateful to focus my energies on teaching at this point in life. Nonetheless, below is an audio file of my recent sermon. Also, you will find an introduction to the text and my notes.

* * * * * * * * * *

Introduction: The Ascension of Jesus Christ into Heaven is often overlooked. We take note of Jesus’ birth on Christmas day, his betrayal on Maundy Thursday, his death on Good Friday, and his bodily resurrection on Easter Sunday. But somehow the Ascension gets passed by with barely a notice. Why is this particular event in the life of Jesus so important? Here are a few thoughts to consider: When Jesus ascends into Heaven (1) it is the fulfillment of the promise of the coming of the Holy Spirit; (2) it is the formal establishment of the Kingdom of God (not a physical Kingdom, but a spiritual one); (3) it is the beginning of Jesus’ role as an intercessor for his people; (4) it is the acceptance of Jesus’ atoning work by the Father; and (5) it is a pledge that Jesus will return in the same way in which he departed. Thus, the Ascension is like “a hinge” upon which all of these events swing. Let us, then, acknowledge the glorious significance of Jesus’ ascent into Heaven.

Here is my outline plus a few of the additional Bible verses that I referred to in this sermon:

1. The Promise of the Holy Spirit, (vs. 4-5) — Luke 24:49; John 14:26 and 16:7

2. The Establishment of the Kingdom of God, (vs. 6-7) — Amos 9:11: Luke 17:20-21

3. The Beginning of Jesus’ Role as an Intercessor, (vs. 8) — Hebrews 7:25 and 9:24

4. The Acceptance of Jesus’ Saving Work, (vs. 9) — 1 Timothy 3:16; Psalm 110:1; 1 John 2:1

5. The Pledge of Jesus’ Future Return, (vs. 10-11) — Luke 24:30-31; Matthew 24:30-31; Daniel 7:13-14

Here is an audio file of my sermon: I hope you enjoy it!

— Rev. Dr. Marcus J. Serven

These three volumes really blessed me in my sermon preparation–they have great insights!

G. I. Williamson on the Roman Catholic View of Justification

April 30, 2025 /

“Therefore, since we have been justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ.” Romans 5:1

Rev. G. I. Williamson (1925-2023)

“One of the basic errors of Roman Catholicism is confusion of justification and sanctification, that is, between legal and inherent righteousness. Rome teaches that at certain times (such as immediately after baptism, or reception of one of the other sacraments) a person is “just.” What is meant, however, is that the person is actually made internally holy and not just legally righteous before God. This holiness, according to Rome, can then be partially or even totally destroyed by sin, venial or mortal. A person may cease to be just. He must again be justified through sacramental grace. And on it goes in a constant cycle. Sin nullifies sacramental grace, and then sacramental grace nullifies sin. This is a doctrine that gives no peace (see Rom. 5:1). One can never be certain of his standing with God. But more than this, it does not make sense. For if sacramental grace actually produced inward holiness, then why would that person ever sin again? If justification meant perfect inward holiness, then there could be no further sin, because a “perfect tree will bring forth perfect fruit” (see Luke 6:43-45). This difficulty is removed when we distinguish between justification and sanctification. In justification the sinner is once and for all declared holy, legally absolved from all guilt and punishment of sin, whether original or actual, past or future. In sanctification the sinner is gradually and progressively purged of all pollution and practice of sin, so that sin is progressively weakened (in the long run), and inherent holiness becomes progressively stronger, until finally the person becomes (at death) actually as righteous as he has long been legally.”

— Rev. G. I. Williamson, The Westminster Confession of Faith: For Study Classes, 142

These wise words from G. I. Williamson give me an eternal hope! I can trust that the justification provided by Jesus Christ is completely sufficient for the pardon of all of my sins. Based upon that new reality, I can live by faith as one who actively seeks after holiness. All of this is based upon the clear teachings of the Bible, and not just upon the ever-changing “traditions of men.” Praise be to God!

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Resources for Further Study:

Williamson, G. I. The Westminster Confession of Faith: For Study Classes. Second Edition. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2004.

You might also consider…

Barrett, Matthew, ed. The Doctrine on Which the Church Stands or Falls: Justification in Biblical, Theological, Historical, and Pastoral Perspective. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2019.

McGrath, Allister E. Justification by Faith: What It Means to Us Today. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1988.

Sproul, R. C. Faith Alone: The Evangelical Doctrine of Justification. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books, 1995.

The Day Martin Luther was Kidnapped!

April 28, 2025 /
Martin Luther makes his bold defense before Charles 5th and the Papal legate at Worms

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“Our God is a refuge and a strength, a very present help in trouble.” Psalm 46:1

Over five hundred years ago, Martin Luther was ordered by Charles 5th, the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, to travel to Worms, Germany to make his defense. He was given a promise of “safe conduct” to and from the gathering (or Diet). His friends reminded him, though, of how John Huss had been given a similar promise over a hundred years before, but was betrayed and lost his life (1417). With that ominous threat in mind Luther had to be careful as he traveled the long road to Worms in his oxen-drawn carriage. He felt fear at the prospect of dying in the flames while chained to a stake. But he also felt that it would be a privilege to die for the sake of his Lord Jesus Christ. Once he arrived at Worms (on April 16, 1521), it was demanded that Luther reject all of his books and recant the truths he had discovered from his studies in the Bible. Under the extreme pressure of the moment, he asked for a day to think it over. This was granted. After spending an anguished night of prayer and reflection in a high tower he refused to recant and the next morning he made the following courageous speech:

Emperor Charles 5th

“Since Your Majesty and your lordships desire a simple reply, I will answer without horns and without teeth. Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason—I do not accept the authority of popes or councils, for they have contradicted each other—my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. May God help me, Amen.”

— Roland Bainton, Here I Stand, 144

Luther was abruptly dismissed from the gathering by the emperor, and it appeared that he had emerged victorious from the Diet of Worms. He began his travel home to Wittenberg on April 26, 1521 trusting that he would be able to return to his studies and to his eager students. Unknown to Luther, however, ten days after he departed the emperor declared him to be a criminal and a heretic (May 6, 1521). He ordered that Luther be captured and held for future judgment. Luther’s friends, though, had a different plan. Anticipating what might happen, they schemed to get him away from all of his enemies to a place of safety and thereby preserve his life. The famous historian of the Reformation, Dr. J. H. Merle D’Aubigne, gives us the details of what happened on that fateful day:

“On the following day he resumed his journey, accompanied by Amsdorf and his brother James. In these lonely spots the reformer’s lot was to be decided. They were passing along the forest of Thuringia, on the road to Waltershausen, As the carriage was in a hollow part of the road…a sudden noise was heard, and at that moment five horsemen, masked and in complete armor, rushed upon the travelers. Luther’s brother, as soon as he perceived the assailants, leapt from the vehicle, and ran off at full speed without uttering a word. The driver was for defending himself. “Stop!” cried one of the assailants in a stern voice, and rushing upon him threw him to the ground. A second man in a mask seized Amsdorf, and prevented him from coming near. Meanwhile the three other horsemen laid hold of Luther, keeping the most profound silence. They pulled him violently from the carriage, threw a horseman’s cloak upon his shoulders and placed him on a led horse. Then the other two quitted Amsdorf and the driver, and the whole leapt into their saddles. The hat of one of them fell off, but they did not even stop to lift it, and in a twinkling disappeared in the dark forest with their prisoner. They at first took the road to Broderode; but they soon retraced their steps by a different road, and, without quitting the forest, made turnings and windings in all directions, in order to deceive those who might attempt to follow their track…nightfall having made it impossible to follow their track, the party carrying off Luther took a new direction, and about an hour before midnight arrived at the foot of a mountain. The horses climbed slowly to its summit, on which stood an old fortress, surrounded on all sides, except that of the entrance, by the black forests which cover the mountains of Thuringia. To this elevated and isolated castle, named the Wartburg…was Luther conducted.”

— D’Aubigne, The History of the Reformation, Book VII, 214

News of Luther’s kidnapping quickly spread throughout the countryside. Some people were delighted, while others responded with anguished feelings of grief and sorrow. They did not know if Martin Luther was dead or alive! But rather than being captured by his enemies, Luther had actually been kidnapped by his friends! The supportive German Prince, Frederick of Saxony, arranged for Luther’s “kidnapping” by his trustworthy knights in order to protect him from the vengeful Roman Catholic authorities. 

The Wartburg–Martin Luther referred to this remote mountain refuge as “My Patmos”
Luther as “Junker George”

For almost a year Luther lay hidden in “The Wartburg” under the false name, Junker George (or “George the Knight”). During this time he grew a beard and carried a large sword to complete the disguise. Rather than remain idle, or feel sorry for himself, he used this time of concealment well and wrote a large number of pamphlets defending the doctrines he had discovered in the Bible. Moreover, he began work on translating the entire New Testament into German (completed in 1522). Finally, he wrote many stirring hymns of which “A Mighty Fortress is our God” is the best known. It has been reported that while watching the smoke rise from many peasant campfires in the valley far below, Luther became discouraged by intense feelings of loneliness and despair. A fresh wind, though, suddenly arose and blew all the smoke away. He was greatly encouraged by this sight and rejoiced that the Lord can remove our own fears and doubts as easily as the wind can blow away smoke. Indeed, “Our God is a refuge and a strength, a very present help in trouble.” Psalm 46:1

Resources for Further Study: 

Bainton, Roland. Here I Stand. New York, NY: Penguin Books, 1950.

D’Aubigne, J. H. Merle. The History of the Reformation. Originally Published in 1872; Powder Spring, GA: Powder Springs Press, Facsimile Edition, 2008. 

Hildebrand, Hans J., ed. The Reformation: A Narrative History. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers, 1964. 

Kittleson, James M. Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and his Career. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1986.

Rupp, Gordon. Luther’s Progress to the Diet of Worms 1521. London, England: SCM Press Ltd., 1951. 

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

Genevan Foundation – Copyright 2025 – All Rights Reserved

The Protestant Reformation and Early European Presbyterianism (1500-1650)

April 22, 2025 /

Written by Dr. Marcus J. Serven

“For with you is the fountain of life; in your light do we see light.” Psalm 36:9

Introduction:

There are many significant Reformers who the Lord raised-up during the time of the Reformation. I am going to focus, however, on the four Reformers who made the most important contributions towards the growth and development of a thorough-going Protestant theology–Martin Luther, William Tyndale, John Calvin, and John Knox. These four church leaders emphasized the sovereignty of God, the utter sinfulness of humanity, the centrality of God’s justifying grace in salvation, the necessity of preaching the Bible, the proper administration of the Sacraments (Baptism and the Lord’s Supper), and a church structure based on the Bible (i.e. Elder-led). As a long-time Presbyterian Minister (since 1980), I am also extraordinarily interested in the development of European Presbyterianism. It is the foundation of Presbyterianism in America and throughout the entire world. To put it succinctly, this article will be a brief summary of the lives and ministries of four Protestant Reformers from 30,000 feet!

Setting the Stage: Why was the Reformation necessary? 

The coat of arms and motto of Geneva, Switzerland

The central reason why the Reformation was necessary was for the recovery of the gospel. Without it, the church had become a place of darkness. The motto for the city of Geneva, Switzerland during the Reformation explains this viewpoint well; it declared, Post Tenebras Lux (Lat. “after darkness, light!”). Moreover, consider this analogy: The Medieval church had become like a giant ship whose hull had become so encrusted with barnacles and seaweed that it could barely move through the water. Instead of racing through the ocean at top speed, this ship (i.e. the church) had become so burdened with the excessive weight of the “traditions of men” that the gospel message was completely obscured. The only way for this situation to change for the better was for the “traditions of men” to be stripped away so that the gospel message in its simplicity could be known once again. To accomplish this the Lord raised-up godly men (i.e. the Reformers) who took the ship (the church) into a dry dock where they scraped the sides of the church getting rid of all that encumbered it. Once this was done, the church became like a freshly cleaned and painted ship that was able to race through the oceans at top speed once again. The famous Reformation scholar Roland Bainton echoes this sentiment by saying, “The Reformation was above all else a revival of religion. So much is this the case that some have looked upon it as the last great flowering of the piety of the Middle Ages.”

Martin Luther (1483-1546) and the German Reformation:

Martin Luther, the Father of the German Reformation

Who was Martin Luther? Certainly he must be remembered as that preeminent Protestant Reformer who recovered the true gospel and rescued the Christian church from its slavery to the “traditions of men.” He began his religious career as a well-meaning, but misguided Augustinian monk. God endowed him with a remarkably curious mind that searched after truth—not just philosophical truth, but “true truth” that would actually make a difference in changing lives. He found that life-giving “truth” in the pages of Holy Scripture. There he learned that all men and women are inveterate sinners who are unable to help themselves. He also learned that God graciously sent forth his Son, Jesus Christ, as a sacrifice for sins, and that God provided the “gift of faith” so that we could believe and trust in the redemptive work of Jesus Christ on the cross. This discovery brought about a fundamental change in Luther’s life so that he realized that he had been justified on the basis of Christ’s righteousness and not his own righteousness. In gratitude he dedicated himself to live to the glory of God. The Lord used him to begin a spiritual revolution in Germany, which spread throughout Europe and in time to the rest of the world. Luther’s defense of the gospel took place at the Diet of Worms in 1521 where he stubbornly affirmed, “Here I stand; I cannot do otherwise; God help me! Amen.” He famously quarreled with Ulrich Zwingli over the nature of the Lord’s Supper. Luther also wrote against Desiderius Erasmus, the most well-regarded Roman Catholic scholar of the day. Luther took issue with Erasmus’ assertion that man has a free will when it comes to the matter of salvation. In contrast, Luther wrote in his famous treatise—The Bondage of the Will—that man is completely unable to contribute to his own salvation. Eternal salvation is totally dependent upon God’s free grace. A notable associate of Luther was Philip Melanchthon who helped to craft the Augsburg Confession in 1530 which propelled Luther’s theology throughout the centuries. 

William Tyndale (c.1494–1536) and the English Reformation:

William Tyndale, the Father of the English Reformation

In the early days of the Reformation the Lord raised-up an intrepid Reformer to continue the work of John Wycliffe–his name was William Tyndale. Little is known of Tyndale’s early life, however he had an innate gift for languages and it is reported that he became fluent in seven different ancient and foreign languages—Greek, Hebrew, Latin, German, Dutch, French, and Spanish! Tyndale attended Magdalen Hall at Oxford University where he received a Bachelor of Arts in 1512 and a Master of Arts in 1515. Later while teaching at Oxford he became deeply disturbed by the lack of Bible knowledge amongst his students and resolved to produce a new translation of the Bible. He famously quarreled with an English clergyman and said, “If God spare my life, ere many years, I will cause a boy that driveth the plough to know more of the Scripture than thou dost.” This kind of combative attitude offended the leaders of the English church, and in time Tyndale was treated as a trouble-maker, an outcast, and eventually as a heretic. He fled to the Netherlands and quietly continued his work of Bible translation. The normal way of getting copies of his Scriptures into England was to smuggle them into the country hidden in a bolt of fabric. Several sympathetic Dutch merchants assisted Tyndale in this effort. Despite the determination of the authorities in the English church to intercept these Bibles, copies of Tyndale’s work spread throughout England. Finally, while in the Netherlands Tyndale was betrayed by a fellow Englishman and captured by agents of King Henry VIII. After suffering in a dark and dank prison cell for seventeen months he was put to death by strangulation and his body was burned (1536). His final words were, “Lord open the King of England’s eyes!” In a short time, Tyndale’s prayer was answered and his associate, Miles Coverdale, was able to produce a translation of the Bible sponsored by the leader of the English Privy Council, Thomas Cromwell. Three years after Tyndale’s death The Great Bible—which is comprised mostly of Tyndale’s work—was published in 1539 and spread throughout the land. Tyndale has been rightly called “The Father of the English Reformation.”

John Calvin (1509-1564) and the Swiss Reformation:

John Calvin, Reformer of Switzerland and Western Europe

Many Christians today have distinct impressions of who John Calvin was, but most have never read a single line from his Institutes of the Christian Religion, or benefited from the careful exegesis found in his Commentaries on the Bible. In brief, it must be noted that the Reformer John Calvin has often been misinterpreted, misread, and misunderstood. He is, perhaps, best known for his views on the doctrines of election, predestination, and reprobation. He is also known for his pivotal role in the prosecution of the arch-heretic Michael Servetus who rejected the Trinity and the deity of Jesus Christ. But, none of these disconnected pieces of information can demonstrate, in my opinion, the true character of the man. And so, who really was John Calvin? Hughes O. Old, a noted scholar of Calvin’s life and theology, states the opinion that, “John Calvin is chiefly remembered as a biblical scholar and a systematic theologian.” While it is clear that Calvin distinguished himself through his theological writing and teaching ministry, he also was the preeminent pastor of the city of Geneva. After being tutored by Calvin, the Scottish Reformer John Knox stated that Geneva was “the most perfect school of Christ that ever was since the time of the Apostles.” Following Calvin’s death he was succeeded in Geneva by Theodore Beza. The spiritual children of Calvin are found amongst the French Huguenots, Dutch Reformed, English Puritans and Pilgrims, Scots-Irish Presbyterians, and especially amongst the Presbyterians of North America and Korea. In time, these disparate groups around the world became known as “Calvinists.” It is the Calvinists who acknowledge the sovereignty of God over all things, the covenantal relationship that God has with his people throughout history, and who emphasize the grace of God in salvation. Good works naturally follow the regenerating work of the Holy Spirit, so that they are recognized as the “fruit” of salvation. Also, Calvinists identify their beliefs as a “Reformed theology.” 

John Knox (c.1514-1572) and the Scottish Reformation: 

John Knox, Reformer of Scotland

Briefly stated, John Knox was born in Scotland, attended classes at St. Andrews University, experienced a life-changing conversion to Jesus Christ at twenty-nine, and a call to the ministry shortly thereafter. Following a year-long exile in St. Andrew’s Castle due to civil war, Knox was enslaved by the French and forced to row all over the North Atlantic. He came close to death while in captivity, but in God’s kind providence he was released and became a diligent and esteemed pastor in England. During the reign of Mary Tudor (i.e. “Bloody Mary”) he fled to Europe, and while there he ministered to English exiles in Frankfurt, Germany and later in Geneva, Switzerland. Knox studied Bible and theology at the feet of John Calvin. He was a husband to Marjorie Bowes, and after her untimely death, to Margaret Stewart; he was a father to two sons and three daughters. In 1559 he returned to his native Scotland where he courageously advanced the cause of the Reformation as an evangelist and later as the pastor at St. Giles Cathedral in Edinburgh. By his preaching and teaching, he was able to bring virtually all of Scotland to a thorough-going knowledge of the Lord Jesus Christ and he engendered in the Scots a stalwart resolve to advance Christ’s Kirk (or, Church) here on earth. The rallying cry of the Scottish Presbyterians (i.e. the Covenanters) was “For Christ’s Crown and Covenant.” This motto is directly connected to the preaching of John Knox, but it also expresses how the Scots rejected the claim that a King or Queen could rule over Christ’s Church. Knox and his followers assert that only Jesus Christ is head of the Church (or Kirk). After his death, Knox became widely known as the author of his gripping book, The History of the Reformation in Scotland.

Note: Three additional names could be added to this brief summary–Thomas Cartwright (1535-1603), Andrew Melville (1545-1622), and Samuel Rutherford (1600-1661). Each man made significant contributions to the development and progress of early Presbyterianism in England and Scotland. In time, I intend to add them to this article. ~MJServen

The Westminster Assembly (1643–1649):

The Westminster Assembly (1643-1649)

The Westminster Confession of Faith was composed during a time of intense strife and armed conflict in England (1642-1660). The two warring parties—the Royalists who were led by King Charles I and his son Charles II, and the English Parliament which was dominated by the Puritans, Independents, and Oliver Cromwell—struggled over the theological reform of the Anglican Church and the right of the reigning monarch to impose a religious system upon the English people. The English Civil War arose from this contentious struggle. In the midst of this conflict the English Parliament urged the writing of a statement of faith that would more clearly reflect the doctrines of the Protestant Reformation. As a result, the Westminster Assembly was made up of English pastors, scholars, and laymen; which consisted of 121 Divines, 10 Lords, and 20 Commoners. Representatives of the Scottish Covenanters were also invited to participate in the debate and formulation of a new Confession of Faith. These sessions were held from July 1, 1643 through February 22, 1649 and took place in St. Margaret’s Chapel, at Westminster Abbey in London, England. Amongst its key documents are a Confession of Faith in thirty-three chapters with numerous proof-texts from Scripture, a Larger Catechism of 196 questions, a Shorter Catechism of 107 questions, a Directory for Public Worship, and a Form of Presbyterial Church Government. Later a Book of Discipline, based on the Second Book of Discipline (1578) crafted by Andrew Melville of Scotland, was added to the Book of Church Order by many Presbyterian denominations to establish a procedure for dealing with church discipline and for settling disputes within the church. A volume containing a metrical version of the Psalms was also approved by the Westminster Assembly to be used in congregational and family worship. The Westminster standards were adopted by the Church of Scotland in 1647 and by the English Parliament in 1649. They are the sole foundational documents for all Presbyterian Churches throughout the world, especially those that are English-speaking. Those who hold to the Westminster Confession of Faith assert that the Bible is the primary standard, and the Confession of Faith and its Catechisms are considered to be a secondary standard.

If you would like to know more about…

— Martin Luther click here

— William Tyndale click here

— John Calvin click here

— John Knox click here

— The Westminster Confession of Faith & Presbyterianism click here

These three volumes are good places to start for an exploration of the Reformation–they are readable, reliable, and full of interesting anecdotes!

Resources for Further Study:

Atherstone, Andrew. The Reformation: Faith and Flames. Oxford, England: The Lion Press, 2011.

Bainton, Roland. The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century. Boston, MA: The Beacon Press, 1952.

Daniel, David. William Tyndale: A Biography. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994.

Dawson, Jane. John Knox. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2015.

George, Timothy. Theology of the Reformers. Revised Edition. Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2013.

Estep, William R. Renaissance & Reformation. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1986.

Kelly, Douglas F. The Emergence of Liberty in the Modern World. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 1992.

Kittelson, James M. Luther the Reformer: The Story of the Man and his Career. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Publishing House, 1986.

Letham, Robert. The Westminster Assembly: Reading its Theology in Historical Context. Phillipsburg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2009.

Lindsey, Thomas M. The Reformation: A Handbook. First Published 1882; Edinburgh, Scotland: The Banner of Truth Trust, 2006.

Marshall, Peter, ed. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Reformation. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2015.

The Confession of Faith and Catechisms. American Edition (1788). Jointly published by Great Commission Publications (PCA) in Atlanta, GA, and the Committee on Christian Education (OPC) in Willow Grove, PA, 2005.

Westminster Confession of Faith. First Published in 1646; Glasgow, Scotland: Free Presbyterian Publications, 1946.

Vollmer, Philip. John Calvin: Man of the Millennium. San Antonio, TX: The Vision Forum Inc., 2008.

Dr. Marcus J. Serven, ThM and DMin

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J. I. Packer on Propitiation

April 12, 2025 /

“He made Him who knew no sin to be sin on our behalf, so that we might become the righteousness of God in Him.” 2 Cor. 5:21 (NASB)

Just recently I came across a very fine quote from Dr. J. I. Packer that I had copied out of his book, Knowing God, quite a long time ago. Packer sets forth–in classic Reformed style–the doctrine of propitiation in the sacrificial work of Jesus Christ. The word propitiation (Gk. hilasterion = to conciliate, appease, expiate) refers to the satisfaction of the wrath of God through the death of Christ (See: Rom. 3:25; Heb. 2:17; 1 Jn. 2:2; 1 Jn. 4:10). In short, Jesus becomes sin for his people and satisfies the divine wrath of our Holy God. In addition, he gives to them his righteousness in a “double imputation” (i.e. our sins are imputed to Him, and His righteousness is imputed to us). Consider Packer’s explanation of propitiation:

Dr. J.. I. Packer (1926-2020)

“The basic description of the saving death of Christ in the Bible is as a propitiation, that is, as that which quenched God’s wrath against us by obliterating our sins from His sight. God’s wrath is His righteousness reacting against our unrighteousness; it shows retributive justice. But Jesus Christ has shielded us from the nightmare prospect of retributive justice, in obedience to His Father’s will, and receiving the wages of sin in our place. By this means justice has been done, for the sins of all that will ever be pardoned were judged and punished in the person of God the Son, and it is on this basis that pardon is now offered to us offenders. Redeeming love and retributive justice joined hands, so to speak, at Calvary, for there God showed Himself to be ‘just, and the justifier of him that hath faith in Jesus.’ Do you understand this? If you do, you are now seeing to the very heart of the Christian gospel.”

— Dr. J. I. Packer, Knowing God, 170

Packer’s quote is an excellent reminder to us of the redemptive work that Jesus Christ accomplishes for the sake of his people. The Apostle Paul puts it this way, “Christ redeemed us from the curse of the Law, having become a curse for us–for it is written, ‘Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree'” (Gal. 3:13). Therefore, let us give praise and thanks to Almighty God for sending forth his Son to do for us what we could not do for ourselves. Jesus, by his sacrificial work on the Cross, makes it possible for us to escape the retributive justice of God and live as those who have been redeemed. Soli Deo Gloria!

— Dr. Marcus J. Serven

Here are three books by Dr. J. I. Packer that I treasure. Each one of them is great–but, Knowing God is preeminent!

Sources:

Abbott-Smith, G. A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament. Edinburgh, Scotland: T. & T. Clark Ltd., 1981.

Packer, James I. Knowing God. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1973. 

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